EXCEPTION 2.

When one of a series of clauses contains a comma,

the clauses should be separated by semicolons; as,

This occurred when the art of printing had not been invented; when physical science was a myth; when individual liberty, as we now understand it, had never been dreamed of.

EXCEPTION 3.- Long direct quotations, and quotations introduced by as follows, these words, etc., are preceded by a colon; as,

Mr. Smith arose and spoke as follows: "I am happy to count myself a member of this company."

EXCEPTION 4.

Where but, and, or other connecting particle, occurs after a period or semicolon, immediately before a clause, the comma before the clause should be omitted; as,

He removed from the city last year; but if he had remained here longer, he would have gained no more friends.

4. PHRASES.

10. Phrases are separated by commas from the rest of the sentence,

(1) When they are preceded by a modal adverb like even, especially, etc.; as,

There are, even in Boston, a few who cannot earn their living.

(2) When they are equivalent to clauses that would require to be set off by commas; as,

They build, if possible, large and rambling houses on high hills.

(3) When they are separated from the word which they modify, and the voice in reading them is naturally checked, in order to give the desired meaning; as,

In all the countries of the Old World, beggars are as numerous as street lights.

11. Infinitive phrases are usually set off by commas when they are preceded by the expression, in order; as,

He retired early, in order to recuperate his exhausted physical energies.

12. Phrases arranged in pairs, are separated in pairs by commas; as,

In sickness and in health, in safety and in danger, God is our best friend.

13. A series of phrases modifying the same word, takes a comma after each phrase; as,

In London, in Paris, in Berlin, in New York, and in Chicago, we find men to be practically the same.

14. A phrase used parenthetically, and modifying the whole sentence rather than any one word, is set off by commas when the author wishes to emphasize the parenthetical nature of the phrase; as,

The aristocrats of to-day, to speak plainly, are not aristocrats at all.

5. WORDS.

15. Words used parenthetically are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

This includes,

(1) Vocative words and their modifiers; as,

Good friend, depart.

(2) Words in apposition with some preceding word, unless the preceding word has the force of an adjective;

as,

Henry VIII., King of England, was accused of many crimes.

(3) Words repeated for emphasis; as,

Truth, truth is the highest of virtues.

(4) Most modal adverbs; as,

Our civilization, therefore, has its defects.

16. When a noun or verb is omitted for the sake of brevity and emphasis, a comma usually takes its place;

as,

Homer was the greater genius; Vergil, the better artist.

17. Words arranged in pairs are separated in pairs by commas; as,

Prince and pauper, master and slave, city and country, are portrayed with equal fidelity.

18. A series of separated words in the same construction takes commas in the places of the omitted conjunctions; and when the last conjunction is expressed, takes a comma before the conjunction; as,

Henry, James, Charles, and Joseph are common names.

EXCEPTION.

- When the last of two or more adjectives in a series is an essential attribute of the noun modified, the comma should be omitted before it; as,

Many ragged little children were seen playing about the door.

19. All nouns in the singular number and all nouns in the plural ending with any other letter than s, form the possessive case by the addition of an apostrophe and the letters; as, John's, men's.

EXCEPTION.

The additional s may be elided in poetry, and in the phrases, "for righteousness' sake," "for conscience' sake," "for goodness' sake," "for Jesus' sake," etc.

All plural nouns ending in s form the possessive by the addition of an apostrophe after the s; as, Boys'.

20. Abbreviations which do not contain an apostrophe, and Roman letters used to represent numbers, are followed by the period; as,

Mass., XIV.

21. Interjections, except O, and vocatives that express strong feeling, may be followed by an exclamation point;

as,

Ah! Man!

Interjections usually have no exclamation point, when they stand in exclamatory sentences; as,

Ah, my friend, what a fall was that!

6. MISCELLANEOUS.

22. The dash is used (1) where the construction of the sentence is suddenly changed or suspended; (2) before and after a parenthetical clause when the break is too great for the use of commas; and (3) to denote the omission of words or letters; as,

Religion - who can doubt it? - is the noblest theme.

John B ―n was assaulted by John S

-h.

23. Parentheses are used to enclose an explanation, authority, definition, reference, translation, or other matter not strictly belonging to the sentence; as,

The Egyptian style of architecture (see Dr. Pocock's work) was the mother of the Greek.

24. In the address, date, and conclusion of a letter or other document, commas should be used to separate the different items; as,

Boston, Mass., June 1, 1891.

25. No question should be divided by any other point than a comma or an interrogation mark; but if a question is so constructed that a greater break is required, the dash should be used; as,

If God be with us, who can be against us?

If his deeds are villainous, what say you to that?

26. Marks of quotation [""] are used to indicate a passage from another author, or anything said by a speaker when it is given in his own words; as,

"Yes, sir," said he, "I have."

REMARKS. In quoting words or sentences the period and comma always come before the closing quotation mark; but the interrogation or the exclamation point, the colon, or the semicolon should come before or after the quotation mark according as it is a part of the quotation or not.

When one quotation occurs within another, single marks should be used to enclose it.

27. Omitted letters are sometimes denoted by the apostrophe; as,

Don't yield.

28. The semicolon should be used before as, viz., e.g., i.e., and similar words, when examples or particulars follow; and a comma should follow them; as,

He uses many rustic expressions; e.g., ain't, hain't, that 'ere man, etc.

29. The use of brackets is the same as that of parentheses, but is restricted to interpolations, corrections, notes, or explanations made by authors in quotations from others, or by editors in editing books; as,

See Livy, Book I., line 73. [Philadelphia, 1872.]

30. The parts of a compound predicate, if long or differently modified, should be separated by commas. or semicolons; as,

He dined at his club, but supped with his family on the Avenue.

31. When a date is inserted in a sentence without a preposition or other word to connect it with the preceding words, a comma should be used before it; as,

Washington was born, Feb. 22, 1732.