Very different is the attitude of the bold combatant. Thus Merivale, the historian, represents Rome as "squaring with the world." Catiline takes the posture of the pugilist, when he thus defies Cicero and the Roman Senate:

Here I fling

But here I stand and scoff you.
Hatred and full defiance in your face.

CROLY.

Similar, but even more fierce and disdainful, is the bearing of Coriolanus towards his soldiers who have been cowardly in battle:

You shames of Rome ! . . . You souls of geese,

That bear the shapes of men, how have you run

From slaves that apes would beat? . . .

....

All hurt behind! backs red, and faces pale

With flight and agued fear! Mend, and charge home;
Or, by the fires of heaven, I'll leave the foe

And make my wars on you!

SHAKESPEARE.

Two rules may be given in regard to attitude: First, let the outer express the inner. Second, let ungraceful postures be avoided.

Of facial expression, we may remark as follows:—
ATTENTION Slightly raises the eyebrows.

ADMIRATION raises the brows, opens the eyes, and brings a

smile.

SURPRISE raises the brows, and opens the eyes and mouth. GRIEF wrinkles the brows, draws up their inner ends, and draws down the corners of the mouth.

DISDAIN partly closes the eyes, and slightly turns the head, as if the despised person were not worth looking at. It may also frown, if the feeling be strong, and may elevate the nose and upper lip.

ANGER closes the mouth firmly, holds the body erect, shuts the teeth, and clinches the fists. It strongly frowns, and may even show the teeth.

DETERMINATION closes the mouth tightly. It may clinch the fists. Frowning is the natural expression of some difficulty

encountered, or something disagreeable experienced, which excites a feeling of hostility.

One rule may suffice in facial expression: Let the face show the feeling that prevails at the instant; let it never show the opposite, except for comic effect. (See Darwin on the "Expression of the Emotions in Man and the Lower Animals.")

GESTURE may be defined as a bodily movement to illustrate, express, or enforce some mental act or state.

The question may be asked at the outset, Should the words be made to conform to the gesture, or the gesture to the words? Neither. Each should be exactly adapted to the thought. Then the two former will substantially harmonize. (As to the coincidence in time between gestures and words, see the following paragraph.)

I. GESTURES OF PLACE.

The first step towards any gesture must obviously be a conception in the mind. Instantly the imagination assigns a place to the thing conceived. Without perceptible interval, the eye glances thither, the face may turn in that direction, the whole body may share in the movement. The hand may be lifted and carried towards the locality, and perhaps the index finger may accurately point it out. Lastly, when fit words have been chosen, the voice names the object. So slight is the interval between any two successive steps of this process, that often all seem to be simultaneous. Thus Lord Chatham alludes to a painting, and locates it by a simultaneous glance of his eye, sweep of the arm, and pointing of the finger :

From the tapestry that adorns these walls, the immortal ancestor of the noble lord frowns with indignation at this disgrace of his country!

It matters not whether the object be present or absent, visible or invisible. A speaker of vivid imagination will give it a place, and treat it as if actually seen, or, at least, as if really occupying some determinate position.

The slightest gesture of place is a glance of the eye in the direction of the object as located by the speaker. The next in extent is a turning of the head. The next is a motion of the hand thitherward, the finger, perhaps, pointing. The whole body may turn. Both hands may sometimes be used.

A small object, occupying but a point in the speaker's real or imagined field of vision, is singled out with the index finger; a larger object, with the whole hand extended; a still

larger, with a wave of the hand; an object

covering most of

the field of view, with a sweep of both hands. Thus :-
:-

Do you see that star?

Do you see that constellation (the Great Bear)?

See yonder aurora borealis (covering perhaps a quarter of the northern sky).

Behold this vast galaxy (stretching both ways from the zenith to the horizon).

For further illustration, note that, if a large expanse of ocean be the object mentioned, a sweep of the hand and arm, or even a glance towards it, may be sufficient; but a single ship

in the midst of that broad field, or a distant lighthouse upon its verge, would generally require to be more accurately designated by the index finger.

An orator uses the words yonder heavens. It is sufficient, perhaps, merely to glance upward, or to wave the hand outward and up towards that part of the sky. But if the words be yonder star, his finger will point it out with some accuracy, as already shown.

If the object be an extensive forest, in sight of the speaker and occupying a great portion of the landscape, a gesture of the whole hand and arm, moving so as to direct attention to it as a large object, will suffice. But if it be a single tree, the finger will naturally point it out.

When Erskine, quoting from the supposed speech of an Indian chief, exclaims,

Who is it that causes this river to rise in the high mountains, and to empty itself into the ocean?

on the words, who is it, the speaker looks around, as if to see where the person inquired for may be found. Both the eye

and the hand indicate the respective locations of the river, the mountains, and the ocean.

When Macbeth, in his soliloquy, says,

Is this a dagger which I see before me ?

there is a most intense gaze, and the hand is likely to be unconsciously stretched towards the point which the dagger seems to occupy.

The more vivid the imagination of the speaker, and the more absorbed he is in his subject, the more numerous and the more striking will such gestures naturally be.

Our first class of gestures, then, are gestures of place. They answer the question, WHERE? They are simple and easily made, and they add life and picturesqueness to discourse. They are followed without effort, and they often assist wonderfully in the presentation of a subject.

They are sometimes used unnecessarily; as where a speaker, addressing an audience of medical gentlemen, places his hand on his heart, as if they needed to be informed of the locality of that organ !

Children and uncultivated people require more of these gestures than would a body like the Supreme Court, or the Senate of the United States. There is a great difference in the extent to which different speakers employ them.

Something will depend upon temperament. A man of light, active, nervous organization will use far more gestures of this kind, and indeed of every kind, than one who is slow, heavy, phlegmatic. Clay would gesticulate more than Webster; a demonstrative Frenchman more than a reticent Englishman; a vivacious Italian more than a solid Dutchman.

Some applications of these principles may especially be noted. If there be a change in the position of the object while the mind is fixed upon it; for instance, if it be a bird flying, or a train of cars swiftly moving, or other object conceived of as making an extensive change in place; the eye, the