This process is more clearly seen in Sindhi than in the other languages; thus we have

Thus also in Hindi, where the verb corresponds to an abstract noun लाग, and चलना to चाल; भिदना to भेद; and झुकना to. As usual in these languages, there are very many of these abstract nouns which it is difficult to trace back to any Sanskrit root; the principle, however, is the same in all: when once established in the popular mind, it was by degrees extended to words in which it had no business to appear.

§ 12. The group of stems ending in i consists principally of i, ni, and ti. The former added to verbs composes abstracts or appellatives; but the final short i is in most cases rejected in the modern languages, except Sindhi. Thus, taking all three suffixes together:

Skr. अग्नि “ fire,” H. आग, M. G. id., P. अग्गा, B. आगिन and आगुन, S. आग़ि, 0. अि for अमित्र.

Skr. हानि “hurt,” H. हान, S. हाणि, G. id. and हानी, M. हाण. Skr. भूमि “ earth,” H. भूम, भूईं, भूं, P. id. and भोई, S. भू, भूई, G. भू, भोय, भूय, M. भूय, B. भूम, O id. and भूईं. O.

Skr. रात्रि “night,” H. रात, P. G. Mid., S. राति, B.0. राति and रात.

See also examples in Vol. I. p. 315, as मुष्टि, यष्टि, दृष्टि, and

the like.

Skr. गीति “song,” H. गीत, and so in all, but S. गीतु (m.).
Skr. f "caste," H., and so in all, but S. B. O. aifa.
Skr. स्मृति “ memory,” H. P. सुरत.

Skr. af "opinion," H. Я, P. id., and so in all, though af is used in literature.

In this class also the gender depends upon that of the Sanskrit, and has nothing to do with the consonant which may happen to be left final by rejection of the vowel.

In Sindhi there is a class of words, not very extensive, formed with the suffix ti, which expresses abstract nouns, having also a verb of the same meaning. Trumpp's instances (Gr. p. 49) are:

Eufa "expense," verb
verb "to spend."

खपण

In the other languages the short final i is generally rejected; when retained, it is mostly lengthened to . An example of the former is the curious H. word ea or yea, which now means "brokerage," "commission." This occurs in Chand. I. 3, in the form refa, and with the meaning probably of "increase." There is no modern verb from which it can be derived; but it is perhaps to be referred to the Skr. root ridh, "to increase," through a form fa. In the other languages the corresponding word is S. आख़त (f), G. आडत (f), M. अडत, O. B. आडत. With long i we have

H. P. a “profit,” "rise of prices," from

"to rise," M. id.,

G. चढती “ rise,” “ advance,” S. चड़हति, 0. चढति, B. id.

H. लगती “ assessment,” from लगना “to be attached,” M. लगत, G. लगत (f.) “ intimacy,” S. लगति, B. O. लागति, लाग्ति.

H. चलती "movement," from "to move," M. id. “influence,"

P. eat, s. qafa "custom," "habit," O. ufa, B. id.

H. P. बसती “ settlement,” from बसना “ to dwell, " M. वसति, G. वसती,

S. वसंदी, with totally uncalled for anuswara and softening of त to द, probably induced by a belief that the word was the feminine of the present participle active, as in English "a dwelling," O. af, B. id.

The words of this form are not, however, universally composed by the addition of the suffix fa; for instance, H. "the earth," is from Skr. f "the supporter." This ftat suffix is commonly, but erroneously, added to Persian words, as "deficiency," from "less." Here may also be mentioned those two excessively common vulgarisms "jâsti” and "parwasti," so perpetually in the mouths of the lower classes. Parwasti, meaning "protection," "favour," is used instead of the correct Persian parwarish, and is perhaps derived from the participle parwasta, "protected." But "jasti," which is used instead of so; ziyâda, "more," defies analysis; and I have never heard any attempt to account for it: it is perhaps in some way corrupted from; ziyâdatî.

The labial vowel is found throughout every branch of these languages in strict parallelism to the palatal, here also it is so; there are stems in u, nu, tu, and ru. They present, however, no particularly noteworthy peculiarities. Common examples are as follows:

Skr. विन्दु “a drop,” H. बंद, बुंदा, बिंदी, P. बुंद, S. बुंडो, बंद, M. बुंद, बूंद, G. बुंद, बुदि, B. O. बिंदी.

Skr. वायु “wind,” H. बाव, बाई, B. बाओ, 0. बाअ, M. वाव, G. वा, वाइ, S. P. वाउ.

"arm," H. atę, P. S. id., G. aife, M. id. and E,

1 Vulgarly used for “enlisting in a regiment," "engaging in a service," with when used of the person who, hires or engages the soldier, and with when speaking of the soldier himself.

The general rule for these groups is that the final short vowel is in a majority of cases rejected by all the languages except Sindhi; and when retained, is generally lengthened. Cases occur in which i is substituted for u, as in bindi for vindu. Of the common suffix or, I treat in § 16, because there are some peculiarities in its use which render it both uncertain in origin and partial in application. None of these suffixes are used in the modern languages as additions to verbal roots, so that they do not come under the head of genuine modern primaries.

§ 13. As in the case of words ending with the short vowels of the labial and palatal organs, there is a tendency to lengthen in order to preserve them, it is natural that the nouns ending in the corresponding long vowels should, as a rule, retain them. Long is the termination of a number of different classes, which will be detailed in § 18 (1), and in the next chapter (see Chap. II. § 33), where the subject comes more fully under discussion with reference to gender. Long û is represented in

Skr. वधू “wife,” H. बहू, P. बोह, M. S. वहू, B. 0. बहु, बउ, G. ; these three, being careless of quantity, shorten the vowel.

The monosyllable "eyebrow," undergoes considerable changes, as H. f, P. ff. S. introduces its favourite i in fir, while O., on the other hand, inserts u in . G., भुरू. મવું, M. भंबई and भोंवई are probably derived from some formative, rather than from itself. "earth," has been illustrated भ्रू भू above, under f (§ 12).

§ 14. The termination of a large class of nouns in Sanskrit, where it is preceded by a, represents an older form, the of which, though rejected in the Sanskrit nominative, still survives in such Old-Hindi forms as “a doer," and is found

in all the oblique cases of the Sanskrit noun. At p. 165 of Vol. I. these words were somewhat cursorily noticed. It may therefore be as well to examine the whole subject more fully here.

As the noun in all the modern languages takes its form from the nominative case of Sanskrit, and omits entirely the grammarian's fiction of a separate base-form, it would be expected that in this class of stems the groundwork would be the nominative in ȧ, as ; but this is the case, strictly speaking, only in Tatsamas. The large and important class of words denoting relationship and professions exhibits numerous different forms.

In Prakrit there are several systems; the simplest and commonest is the substitution of âro for ri, as “husband,” Skr. . In this case the Prakrit merely perpetuates the true old Aryan nominative, rejecting the corruption which has taken place in classical Sanskrit into ri. From the analogy of the cognate forms in allied languages we see this, as Latin dator, Greek Swτýp, which postulate a Skr. dâtâr; the final o in Pr. arises from its custom of requiring a vowel-ending, which leads it to attach a vowel to Skr. nouns ending in a consonant (Var. iv. 6, 8), or to reject the final consonant itself. From this form arises the Old-Hindi form quoted above, still in use in modern Panjabi करतार and S. कर्तीरु.

Prakrit follows the Sanskrit in shortening the vowel in the familiar and much used words denoting relationship, fuq “father,” भ्रातृ “brother,” जामातृ “ son-in-law,” which stand for पितर्, भ्रातर्, जामातर्, respectively, as is shown by their making in the other cases पितरम, not पितारम, etc. Thus also, while Lat. has datōr, datōrem, it has pater, patrem; and Greek δωτήρ, δωτῆρα, but πατὴρ, πατέρα, and πατρὸς ; Prakrit has पिअरो, भाअरो, जामाअरो (Var. v. 45 ). In these words, however, there is also the contracted form fq, H, and this is apparently the only form permissible in the corresponding