the immortality of the soul. Incidentally he encouraged vegetarianism and gymnastics. Parmenides gave life and darkness as the two principles, Empedocles (450 B.c,) preferred love and hatred, Anaxagoras (450 B.C.) thought everything resulted from the combination of original seeds, while Democritus (450 в.c.) first developed the theory of atoms.

The study of Philosophy became so popular in Athens that teachers of the various systems, and of Rhetoric and Dialectic, became numerous, and were known as SOPHISTS, or teachers of wisdom. Of these Protagoras is best known.

Socrates (470-390 B.C.) first made Philosophy exact. He taught that the first step towards Knowledge was to be con

School.

vinced of Ignorance, and the second to advance The Socratic from clear particular notions to clear general ones. His best-known pupils were Xenophon, who described his doctrines in the Memorabilia," and Plato who expounded and expanded the teachings of Socrates in all his writings. "The Republic" of Plato is mentioned in "Areopagitica."

Following Socrates and Plato the four best-known schools or systems of Athens were the PERIPATETIC, the CYNIC, the STOIC, and the EPICUREAN.

The Peripatetic School was led by Aristotle, the pupil of Plato and tutor of Alexander the Great. His books on Logic, etc., are well known, and his principles are extensions of those of Socrates. His famous four causes of anything-the Ideal, the Material, the Process, the Incitement are well known.

The founder of the Cynic School was Antisthenes, who taught that nothing is good but virtue, nothing evil but vice, and that most men are fools and slaves. (Cf. "The cynic impudence" of l. 184.)

Zeno (300 B.C.) founded the Stoic School, and taught that Philosophy was identical with virtue; that the natural life was the best, and that emotions should be conquered, as tending to

overcome nature. He taught also that no man was perfectly wise, but should endeavour to advance towards perfection.

Epicurus (300 B.C.) taught that we should always trust our sensations, and that virtue, led to happiness. He himself preferred a permanent tranquillity to momentary gratification, and mental pleasures before bodily ones; but his followers made the pursuit of pleasure the only good.

Note that the PLATONIC SCHOOL is sometimes called the ACADEMY; the STOIC SCHOOL is sometimes called the PORCH; the EPICUREAN SCHOOL is sometimes called the GARDEN, from the places where their expounders taught, and that the visit of the Greek Philosophers to Rome in B.C. 155 had great influence in extending the Greek Philosophy to the Latin writers, particularly influencing Cicero.

The Council of Trent, so frequently quoted by Milton, was instituted by Charles V., Emperor of Germany, for the avowed purpose of settling the controversies between Protestant and Roman Catholic. Its first meeting was held at Trent in the Austrian Tyrol, on Dec. 13, 1545, and its last on Dec. 4, 1563. It proved too Roman Catholic in its judgments to please the Protestants, the Index of Prohibited Books and the Index Expurgatorius both originating from it, while the Pope Pius IV. thought that the holding of its meetings at Trent, in the territory of Charles V., gave the Emperor too much influence in its discussions, and it was by his command that the Council dissolved in 1563.

The Spanish Inquisition. The origin of the Spanish Inquisition is detailed in the notes. The burning hatred of Spain originated in the Marian persecutions, for which Spanish influence and example were blamed; and was fanned by anger at the stories of torture told by Elizabethan sailors who suffered imprisonment in Spain, by the attempted conquest of England by the Spanish Armada, and by the bloody severities of Alva upon our Protestant brethren in the Netherlands. The

attempted Spanish match which Buckingham and Charles, when Prince of Wales, set out to accomplish in 1623 A.D., kindled again these fires of rage, while the repressive Acts of Laud and his Court of High Commission did not a little to keep them ablaze.

Early English Licensing Acts.-Although Milton lays the blame of the Licensing decree primarily upon the previous Star Chamber decree of 1637, both Catholic and Protestant English, when in power, had previously attempted to restrict the liberty of the opposing press. Thus, in the reign of Mary, in 1559, a decree was passed that no one was to print a book or paper without the previous licence of the Privy Council or of a Bishop, while in 1585, under Protestant Elizabeth, by a decree of the Court of High Commission, almost as strong as that of the Star Chamber in 1637, it was enacted that:

Presses had to be registered.

All printing was prohibited, except in London, and one press each for Oxford and Cambridge.

All books were to be approved by the Archbishop of Canterbury or the Bishop of London.

Power to search, seize, and destroy illicit presses was granted.

The Star Chamber was first instituted in the reign of Edward III., and was held in the "Camera Stellata," but was not at first called the Star Chamber. In its later form it was inaugurated by Henry VII., in 1488, and consisted of the Chancellor, the Treasurer, and two of the Chief Justices. To these Henry VIII. added the President of the Privy Council, while under the Stuarts it was practically identical with the Privy Council. As Charles II. ruled from 1629 to 1640 by aid of a Cabin, or Cabinet Council, of the Privy Council, the Star Chamber became that body impossible in a freedom-loving country-a body at once legislative and juridical, i.e., at once making and enforcing laws.

As constituted, it was practically a court of criminal equity. taking under its notice such offences as forgery, perjury, riot, maintenance, fraud, libel, conspiracy, breach of proclamations. It had power to inflict any penalty short of death. Some of the penalties it inflicted, and which made it greatly hated by the Puritans, were:—

1629. ALEXANDER LEIGHTON was degraded from holy orders, whipped at Westminster, set in the pillory, had one ear cut, one side of his nose slit, and one cheek branded S.S. (Sower of Sedition). This was repeated at Cheapside the next week, and was followed by imprisonment for life. His offence was the writing of a pamphlet, Sion's Plea Against Prelacy.

1637. DR. OSBALDISTON, Master of Westminster School, was fined £8,000-£5,000 to the court, and £3,000 to Laudwas to be deprived of his office, and placed, with his ears nailed to the pillory, in Dean's Yard, Westminster, opposite his school, and afterwards imprisoned during pleasure. His offence was writing disrespectfully of Laud in a private letter.

1637. PRYNNE, BURTON and BASTWICK were fined £5,000, set in the pillory, had their ears cut off, were branded on both cheeks, imprisoned for life, allowed access neither to kindred nor friends, deprived of books and writing materials. Their sole offence was the writing of pamphlets against the prelates.

1638. LILBURNE was whipped from the Fleet to Westminster, set in the pillory, and imprisoned during pleasure.

Clarendon, in his History of the Rebellion, speaks of :

"The Council Table (i.e., Milton's Cabin Council) by proclamation enjoining to the people what was not enjoined by the law, and prohibiting that which was not prohibited; and the Star Chamber censuring the breach and disobedience to those proclamations by very great fines and imprisonment; so that any disrespect to any Acts of State, or to the persons of statesmen, was in no time more penal, and those foundations of right by which men valued their security, to the apprehension and understanding of wise men, never more in danger to be destroyed."

The Court of High Commission was instituted by Elizabeth in 1583 to execute, by means of commissioners, the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction of every kind vested in her by the Act of

Supremacy. The number of commissioners was 44, of whom 12 were prelates. Five, one to be a bishop, formed a quorum. Their duties were:

"To enquire generally by the oaths of 12 good and lawful men, or by witnesses, and all other means they could devise, of all matters affecting religion, such as heretical and schismatic opinions, absence from church, seditious books, slanderous words and sayings, incests, adulteries, and other immoralities: to examine all suspected persons on their oath to tender the oath of Supremacy according to the Act of Parliament, and to punish all who should refuse to appear or to obey their orders. by excommunication, fine, and imprisonment."

Just as Strafford found his Star Chamber, and the councils of the North and Wales, instruments ready to his hand for his "thorough" system, so Laud made similar use of the Court of High Commission, and made it and its "officials" equally hated by the Puritans.

Presbyterianism. -The long controversy between Prelate and Puritan began with the famous Marprelate Controversy of 1587. In this controversy the leaders on the Puritan side were Penry, Barrow, and Udall, and their best known pamphlets were called The Epistle, The Epitome, and Hay any work for Cooper. Bridges, Dean of Sarum, and Cooper, Bishop of Winchester, were their chief opponents, and Aylmer, Bishop of London, was freely attacked. The conflict was not restricted only to the clerical disputants, but every wit, John Lyly amongst them, threw his hatchet into the fight.

Thomas Cartwright in 1591 introduced into England the Presbyterian form of Puritanism, and from that time it spread rapidly. Cartwright, who was а Divinity Professor at Cambridge, had previously attempted to reform abuse in the Episcopal Church. For his endeavours to introduce Presbyterianism he was imprisoned by the Court of High Commission, and threatened with banishment by the Star Chamber, but was finally released on bail. The punishments inflicted on the Puritans intensified their desire for civil and