exception, the most exquisite specimen of its class known to exist anywhere. He also considered (2, 206) that the Kutb Minar "both in design and finish far surpasses any building of its class in the whole world," and that Giotto's Campanile at Florence, "beautiful though it is, wants that poetry of design and exquisite finish of detail which marks every moulding of the Minar." In the earliest examples of the Pathan period, the dome is not made a prominent feature.

But the outlying Provinces of the empire invented styles of their own expressive of their local peculiarities. These can be seen at Jaunpur, the capital of the Sharki dynasty (1394-1476); in Gujarat, especially Ahmadabad, while independent (1396-1572); in Malwa, similarly (1401 - 1531), (pp. 128-9); at Gaur and Pandua, in Malda (pp. 416-418), (1203 - 1573). S. of the Narbada the Bahmani rulers (1347-1525) constructed their buildings of various styles at Gulbarga (p. 478) and Bidar. Bijapur and Golconda (p. 516) also had their special fashions in building.

With the advent of the Mughals, the influence of Persian architecture begins to be felt. Of Babar's (1526-30) works only two mosques now remain—at Panipat and Sambhal; and a mosque built by Humayun still exists at Agra. Persian influence first became markedly apparent in the tomb of Humayun at Delhi, built in Akbar's reign. Akbar, indeed, in architecture, as in religion, was extremely tolerant and eclectic; and many of his buildings exhibit Hindu characteristics. Noticeable examples are the town of Fatehpur Sikri, the fort at Allahabad, the palace at Lahore, and the red palace in the fort at Agra, which last, ascribed in part to Jahangir by some authorities, maintains the characteristic Hindu feeling of the early Mughal style. Among Jahangir's contributions to Indo-Persian architecture were the tombs of Akbar at Sikandra, of Anar Kali at Lahore, and I'timad-ud-daula at Agra. Shah Jahan, under whom the Mughal power reached its climax, was the greatest of all Indian builders. There is, however, a great contrast between the manly vigour and exuberant originality of Akbar and the extreme elegance of his grandson, which rapidly tended to become effeminate. Shah Jahan built the Jami Masjid at Delhi, the inner fort and palace at Agra, the Moti Masjid, or Pearl Mosque, there also, and the Taj Mahal, perhaps the most beautiful building in the world. In these works, wrote Mr V. Smith, the Indo-Persian style, by universal consent, attained supreme beauty. But the style, though essentially Persian, was distinguished from the Persian practice by the lavish use of white marble, by the pietra dura decorations, beautiful open-work tracery, grandeur, and elegance. His son Aurangzeb was a religious fanatic, who has left little save the mosque at Lahore, another small one at Benares, and the tomb at Aurangabad. The reign of this bigot

was marked by a rapid decline in art, including architecture; the Persian style, consequently, showed marked deterioration. "In many places modern architects have effected a graceful compromise between the Hindu and Muhammadan styles by combining Persian domes with Bengali bent cornices and Hindu or half-Hindu columns. Excellent examples of this pretty though feeble style, as used for both civil and religious buildings, are to be seen at Mathura (Muttra) and in hundreds of other localities. It is quite impossible to tell merely from inspection of the architecture whether a building is intended for Muslim or Hindu use" (V. Smith, pp. 419-20). Foreign innovations, he adds, were subjected to the irresistible pressure of native taste and methods. In Sind the style was Persian, both in form and decoration. The later examples of Mughal architecture at Lucknow have been described as shoddy and pretentious. The style of the Muhammadan dynasty of Mysore (1760-99), though not so degraded as Lucknow, was poor and inartistic.

As mosques in India always face East, they should be seen of a morning.

Among other styles should be mentioned the ruins at Martand and other places in Kashmir, which bear evidence of classical influence, and the modern Golden Temple of the Sikhs at Amritsar.

The Burmese pagoda, with its thin spire, has been evolved from the solid hemispherical dome of the Buddhists. The best examples are at Prome, Pagan, Rangoon, Mandalay, Pegu, and Moulmein. A small example may be seen in the Eden Gardens, Calcutta.

THE PRESERVATION OF ANCIENT MONUMENTS AND ANTIQUITIES

As the architectural monuments of India will specially attract the attention of visitors, so the means taken for their preservation is bound to be a subject of interest. In the earlier days of British rule the Government was too much concerned with laying the foundations and extending the borders of its new Empire to pay much heed to the relics of old ones, and though a few spasmodic efforts were made, notably by the first Lord Minto, by Lord Hastings, and Lord Amherst, to save a few of the most celebrated structures round Agra and Delhi from decay, they resulted only in the accomplishment of some perfunctory repairs. The first real step towards asserting official responsibility in archæological matters was taken by Lord Canning, who in 1860 established the Archæological Survey of Northern India. The function of the new Department, however, as well as of the local surveys which were afterwards instituted in Madras and Bombay, was confined to the description of monuments and to antiquarian research, the critical task of conservation being still left to the Local

Governments, who made fitful efforts to discharge it according to the personal interest of successive Governors or Lieutenant-Governors, but always without expert guidance or control. In 1871 Gen. Sir Alexander Cunningham was appointed Supt. of the Archæological Survey. He was handicapped by the conditions under which he worked; but he was a great pioneer who, by his undoubted gifts and devoted labour, laid in many directions the foundations of the success subsequently achieved.

It was not until 1878 that the Supreme Government awoke to the deplorable condition into which the national monuments were steadily sinking, and the then Viceroy, Lord Lytton, allocated a sum of 3 lakhs to the repair of buildings in the N.W. Provinces, and pressed for the appointment of a special Conservator to guide and control the operations of the Local Administrations. This post was sanctioned two years later, and was held for three years by Major Cole, who accomplished much during that brief period towards the repair of various famous structures, notably those in the Gwalior fort and at Sanchi. Then reaction set in; the post of Conservator was abolished in 1883, that of the Director-General six years later, after which there followed a period of almost complete apathy and neglect. In 1895 came another change of policy, when proposals were made to parcel out the country into several circles, each with its own archæological surveyor, who was to make conservation his first and foremost duty. This scheme, which, be it remarked, made no provision for the exercise of any central control, was still being considered when Lord Curzon became Viceroy and threw himself with characteristic energy into the task of organising the whole Department on a firm administrative basis and of asserting definite— and, it is much to be hoped, permanent-Imperial responsibility. With this end in view the Provincial Departments were established on a more efficient and liberal footing, and were united together under the control of a Director-General, provision at the same time being made for assisting local Administrations out of Imperial funds. Further the functions of the new Department were closely defined and systematic principles laid down for its guidance, special prominence being given to the conservation of monuments-without, however, prejudicing other fields of labour. Finally, in its efforts to safeguard all classes of historic monuments and relics, Lord Curzon's Government took extensive powers by legislation for the protection of those in private possession, as well as for State control over the excavation of ancient sites and traffic in antiquities; and, by dint of encouragement and assistance, secured towards the same object the active co-operation of the Ruling Chiefs.

The result of these wise and comprehensive reforms has since

become manifest in the changed conditions of the ancient buildings of India and Burma. Under the direction of Sir John H. Marshall, C.I.E., Litt. D., F.S.A., the Archæological Department has during the last two decades overhauled all the more important groups of monuments, besides a multitude of isolated relics throughout the country, and has prosecuted a vigorous and far-reaching campaign of repair among them, at the same time formulating a systematic programme for their future treatment. Those who visited the great monuments of India before Lord Curzon's Viceroyalty will realise the extent of the work accomplished since then. At the Taj Mahal at Agra, for instance, the surroundings have been changed from squalor to loveliness. At the Agra, Delhi, and Lahore Forts, the buildings have been conserved, renovated, and beautified. At Ajmer, the embankment of the Anasagar Lake can boast of, perhaps, the most complete transformation of all the pure white marble pavilions of Shah Jahan have been reconstructed with scrupulous care from the dismantled materials. Other famous and beautiful fabrics of the Mughals which have been rescued from deep-seated decay are the mausolea of the Emperors Humayun, Akbar, and Jahangir; the small but priceless tomb of I'timad-ud-daula and the Chini-ka-rauza at Agra; the tombs of Tagah Khan and Isa Khan at Delhi, the mosque of Dai Anga at Lahore, and the so-called Zenana Palace in the fort of Allahabad.

It would take too long to speak of the Department's achievements at the other main centres of Muhammadan power-at Mandu, the mighty fortress of the Malwa Kings, and at Dhar, in Central India ; at Ahmadabad and Bijapur, in Bombay; or at Gaur and Pandua in Bengal and at Rohtasgarh in Bihar. Suffice it to say that what has been done among the Mughal remains has been done in equal measure among these earlier groups of Moslem architecture, and in an equal measure, too, among the Hindu and Buddhist monuments in both India and Burma. The temples of Khajraho and Bhubaneswar, of Conjeeveram, Sompalle, and Vellore; the royal palace and monasteries at Mandalay; the pagodas of Pagan; the vast array of civil and religious edifices at Vijayanagar; the topes at Sanchi and Sarnath ; the sculptured cave temples of Western India and Orissa; and the Mutiny monuments at Lucknow—the Residency, Dilkusha Palace, and Sikandar Bagh-all these and many more besides, that have been singled out for their historic associations or the exquisite beauty of their architecture, have been taken in hand and protected against the further ravages of time. A special feature of all this work has been the rescue of many of these buildings from profane and sacrilegious uses and their restitution to the faith of their founders —or, at least, to safe custody as protected monuments.

In conclusion, it remains to be said that the Archæological

Department has undertaken, for the first time in India, the scientific exploration of buried sites, and by its investigations at Taxila, Charsadda, Sahri Bahlol, Shah-ji-ki-dheri, Bhita, Sarnath, Kasia, Saheth-Maheth, Hmawza, and elsewhere, has thrown a flood of new light on the architecture and art and history of early India and Burma. In the collections of antiquities made at these sites, and in other collections which the Department has brought together at Peshawar, Delhi, Muttra, Sarnath, Mandalay, Pagan, and other places, the student of Indian archæology will now find an abundance of materials systematically arranged and catalogued.

INDIAN ART

INDIAN Art is a by-product of religious emotion, but to be classified according to age and country, not according to creed. Its tradition is held by many to be a possession of priceless value to the Indian peoples.

There are examples of Indian sculpture of the 5th and 6th centuries B.C.; but the history of Indian Art may be said to begin with the Mauryan Emperor Asoka (274 to 237 B.C.), who patronised Buddhism. The expression of early Art was nearly all Buddhist. In Asoka's time the dominant foreign influence was Persian, traceable clearly in his monolithic columns (about 30) and other works. The Greek element, expressed in Asiatic Hellenistic forms, is apparent, especially through the influence of the stone bas-reliefs of Alexandria. But whatever Indian sculptors borrowed they made their own in character. There are numerous echoes of Greek Art in the Gandhara sculptures. The Greek influence ended by 400 A.D. The substantial originality of Indian Art is supported by an examination of the foreign influences upon Indian pre-Muhammadan Art. Modern Art is continuous with the Brahmanical (including later Buddhist) Art, which was evolved during the 7th and subsequent centuries, exalting the ascetic ideal, and reflecting the teachings of Puranic and Tantric literature. Indo-Muhammadan Art began about 1200 A.D., the architecture, domes, and arches, being based on the style practised at Bagdad, with some Hindu features. The Indo-Persian style prevailed in N. India, applied to Hindu traditions and details. instances-e.g., the colonnades at the Kutb, Delhi, and the great mosque at Ajmer-the decorative work is purely Hindu, portions of old temples having been incorporated.

In some

It is suggested that in India painting was an indigenous Art, earlier than sculpture, possibly a branch of a widely-diffused Asiatic school, unconnected with Greece or Rome. Early Hindu painting had merits and deserved credit for substantial originality. Its history