Extreme asceticism and every kind of self-torture are contrary to the teaching of Buddhism as practised by the religious orders. The Buddhist doctrine has been called a pessimist and atheist creed, with some excellent moral rules attached. But in reality it is not pessimistic, as it teaches the assurance of being able to put an end to sorrow, and infinite opportunities for beginning again after failure. Buddhism is "the embodiment of the eternal verity that as a man sows he will reap, associated with the personal duties of mastery over self and kindness to all men; and quickened into a popular religion by the example of a noble and beautiful life" (Sir W. W. Hunter).

The Buddhist ideal is lofty, and has done much for Oriental civilisation wherever it has prevailed. In practice the religion has been adapted to the needs of believers of many races, and prominence was given from early times to almsgiving and acts of piety, such as the building of shrines and monasteries. Faith in, adoration of, and meditation on, the Buddha are of great efficacy. Even in the earliest teaching the presence of a Perfect Buddha in the world is held to be indispensable for the teaching of the truth. Gautama is said to have been preceded by other Buddhas in past ages, and a future Buddha, Maitreya, is looked for. The more austere and rationalistic ideas of arhatship (saintliness) and Nirvana (cessation of sorrow by destruction of craving), as taught in the earlier phases of Indian Buddhism, developed afterwards into the vast and glowing conceptions of Mahayana Buddhists, multiplying Buddhas and Bodhisattwas (predestined Buddhas), and carrying the notion of Nirvana far beyond arhatship-the point where the Hinayana Buddhism stops. These ideas are expressed in Sanskrit literature and indicated to some extent in Buddhist art. The greatest Indian representatives of the Mahayana flourished in the first few centuries of the Christian era. In a yet later and debased Buddhism hardly any of the old virtue or rationalism can be traced. But the early art and principal Buddhist literature of India are inspired by a beautiful devotion and a reasonable morality. A summary of the spirit of Buddhism can be seen clearly set out in translations of the Dhammapada (the way, the state, the path, the footsteps of religion).

The day of expansion of Buddhism dawned when Asoka (274 to 237 B.C., p. 698 of the Cambridge History of India, vol. 1, 1922), the third Mauryan King of Magadha, came under its influence, visited the Buddhist holy places, propagated and enforced the Buddhist Law of Piety, issued his rock-cut edicts, ordered that the sacred books should be collected, and was ordained as a monk. He ruled over the whole of India up to the Hindu Kush mountains and north of a line drawn W. from Nellore. Literature, civilisation, and culture combined to develop the religion; monks and nuns and

laity alike could join the Sangha. Specimens of his rock edicts, inscribed under his title of Priyadasi, exist still at Girnar (p. 213), at Dhauli, near Bhubaneswar (p. 454), and at Shahbazgarhi, close to Hoti Mardan (p. 341); monolithic columns, lats, erected by him, with a portion of the edicts, may be seen at Allahabad (p. 45) and at Delhi (pp. 275-6). These edicts, deciphered by the genius of James Prinsep, embody for the most part the moral rules of Buddhism; they forbid the shedding of blood, inculcate obedience to parents, almsgiving, charity, mercy to all living creatures, respect for teachers, support of religious instructors; they refer to the appointment of censors of morals and missionaries and the creation of hospitals, roads, and wells, and conclude with prayers for the spread of Buddhism. The full number of principal edicts is fourteen, but there are also minor edicts on rocks and pillars. The edicts are of great interest as mentioning the Chola, Pandya, and Kerala Kingdoms of the South, and the Yavan (Greek) kings, Turmayaparni (Ptolemy), Antiyochena (Antiochus), Maka (Magus), and Alikasandare. Those specially interested in the subject should consult Asoka by V. A. Smith (Clar. Press, 3rd Ed., 1920). The Buddhist legend is that Asoka covered India with 84,000 stupas and viharas. His administration was organised to enforce justice, religion, and virtue; and he despatched several Buddhist missions to spread the doctrine far and wide. His brother (or son) Mahendra is said to have headed the Buddhist mission to Ceylon.

After Asoka's time Buddhism more and more affected the literature and art of India. Towards the beginning of the Christian era exterior influences began to operate upon the religion, then widespread and popular in India, from the N.W. and E. Buddhist art made wonderful strides by the introduction of the Hellenic element. The Indo - Scythian monarch Kanishka (whose date is variously given from 58 B.C. to 278 A.D., and probably was 123 to 150 A.D.), a convert to Buddhism, became also a famous royal patron of the religion, raised mighty stupas, and encouraged the collecting of the Scriptures into a Canon. About this time, in the latter half of the 2nd century A.D., a marked development of the doctrine took place in N. India. The literature (Sanskrit works, shortly after translated into Chinese), sculpture, and painting show the predominance of a later conception of the Buddha and the essentials of Buddhist doctrine. This later phase of doctrine is called the Mahayana (the greater vehicle), the more advanced sect which outgrew, and was distinct from, the mother Church; the Hinayana (lesser vehicle) more primitive doctrine of the South Asian countries, which have preserved the old Pali Canon, and, in general, corresponding motives in art. Under this newer Buddhism, the Mahayana, which had much in common with

the older Hinduism, "the sage Gautama became in practice, if not in theory, a god, with his ears open to the prayers of the faithful, and served by a hierarchy of Bodhisattwas and other beings acting as mediators between him and sinful men. The Mahayana sect introduced many Bodhisattwas into their pantheon, with attendant deities and demons, spacious temples and images, processions, ceremonial, and festivals. The remains of Buddhist art are mainly the work of the Mahayana sect.

The missions to China led to visits of Chinese Buddhists, who made long and perilous pilgrimages to worship at sacred spots and collect copies of the sacred texts. Their accounts of their travels, fortunately preserved, are of the greatest value for our knowledge of the state of Buddhism in the 4th to 7th centuries A.D. Buddhism was the predominant religion from the 3rd century B.C. to the 4th century A.D., very influential, propagated systematically by a hierarchy, and wealthy, with its numerous monastic foundations, centres of learning and art. It flourished during those centuries, and the religious orders were strong. But it had already powerful rivals in Jainism, and the Brahmanism (which was never ousted from India) adapted to popular worship and belief; the latter is to be distinguished from the Brahmanism of the Buddha's time, the strength of which seems to have been in sacrificial observances and Vedic study. Gradually the Brahmanic element in India overwhelmed the Buddhist as a popular religion, after the latter's prevalence for approximately one thousand years, so that Buddhism became by degrees assimilated to Hinduism. Some famous Buddhist monuments were converted in course of time into Hindu shrines. When Buddhism disappeared from the open country of the peninsula, it maintained itself in the Himalayas, Burma, and Ceylon. The Buddhist sculptures remain, ranging from Buddh Gaya and Bharhut, of the date of the Mauryan dynasty, 320 to 180 B.C.; Sanchi, before and after our era for several centuries; Amravati and Gandhara, from our era to the 3rd century; to Ajanta and the later caves.

At the present time the most impressive traces of the ancient Buddhism of India may be roughly classified as (1) the sites of the places mentioned as his residences, or scenes of great events in Buddha's life—e.g., Buddh (Bodh) Gaya and Sarnath ; (2) Asoka's pillars, marking the stages of his religious pilgrimages, 3rd century B.C., and his rock edicts; (3) the stupas, afterwards modified; the earliest and very interesting bas-reliefs illustrating Buddhist sacred texts-e.g., Sanchi, near Bhopal, and the remains of the Bharhut stupa; (4) certain sites in the N.W., where great monuments existed in the early centuries of the Christian era-e.g., the great stupa of Kanishka, near Peshawar, discovered in 1909,

containing a relic-chamber, with a valuable casket and its contents; the remains at Taxila; and the stupa of Piprawa, on the Nepal frontier; (5) the Græco-Buddhist sculptures, collected in museums from Gandhara, showing remarkable devotional art, in which Buddha, his life, and legends, are illustrated in markedly Hellenic style; (6) the later monuments, as at Amravati, on the Kistna, in which Hellenic influence is marked.

Of the 11,571,268 (1921 census) Buddhists in India, 11,201,943 are in Burma; 265,604 are in Bengal; 37,685 in Kashmir; 26,788 in Sikhim; 13,162 in Assam: so that ordinary travellers are likely to come across Buddhists only in Burma, Ceylon, Darjeeling, and Kashmir. The best account of the Buddhist religion as it actually affects the lives of the Burmese, is in Sir J. G. Scott's work, The Burman, His Life and Notions (Macmillan, 1910). The Buddhist population in Burma are some of the happiest people on earth. The Pali Text Society is doing much for the elucidation of Buddhism by publishing original Pali works and some translations.

Buddha is generally represented in one of three attitudes—he sits cross-legged, either with both hands raised in the preaching posture, or with his hands in contact in an attitude of profound meditation, or with one hand pointing to the earth. His ears sometimes reach to his shoulders (see Plate 2).

THE JAINS

The founder of this sect, which in 1921 numbered 1,178,596 persons in India was Vardhamana, commonly known by his title of Mahavira, and designated Nataputta by the rival order of Buddhists. The name of Nirgrantha ("without any ties "), of Parsvanatha's order, attached itself to Mahavira's order, but fell into disuse. Mahavira was born probably about 599 B.C. to Raja Siddhartha, head of the Nata clan of Kshatriyas, settled at Vaisali (the modern Basarh), about 27 m. N. of Patna. His mother was Trisala, a King's daughter. At thirty he adopted a spiritual career and became a monk of the Parsvanatha order. After twelve years his divine mission was recognised; he was entitled Mahavira (Great Hero) and acknowledged to be a Jina (spiritual conqueror), from which the system Jainism and sect Jain are derived. In the Jain hierarchy Parsvanatha was Mahavira's immediate predecessor; from him the sacred hill Parasnath, in the Hazaribagh district, has its name. Mahavira taught his religious system and organised asceticism for thirty years, chiefly in Bihar, in the same area as Gautama Buddha, without conflicting. He died probably in 527 B.C. at Pawa, in the Patna district. (These are the traditional dates: the Cambridge History of India, vol. 1, p. 697, gives 540-468 B.C.).

Jainism is a monastic organisation-not strictly a religion. The Jains acknowledged caste, and the Brahmans as priests; their monastic order included four classes-monks, nuns (Svetambaras only), laybrothers, and lay-sisters. Through this lay element Jainism survived in its monastic settlements and lay communities when Buddhism disappeared. The Svetambaras collected and preserved their sacred books in a Council at Pataliputra, the modern Patna, about 310 B.C. ; a subsequent Council at Valabhi, in Gujarat, made a revised edition. In 79 or 82 A.D. a schism took place between the Svetambaras (whiteclad) and Digambaras (sky-clad, or naked).

The chronicling spirit is strong in the Jains, who maintain lists of the succession of teachers. Ancient Jain stupas and inscriptions have been discovered. The object of the Jains is to obtain liberation from the bonds of transmigration. As the cycle of re-births runs on unceasingly, the only remedy lies in breaking with life by an abnegation of the world. Thus is their attainment of Nirvana (liberation from any further re-birth) to be obtained in life, not after death, by the principles of Right Faith, Right Cognition, Right Conduct. Right Faith is absolute reliance on their founder as the Tirthankara, or pathmaker, to Nirvana. There were twenty-four Tirthankaras, from the first, Adinath, to the last three, Neminath, Parsvanatha and Mahavira. Each is known by a symbol (see p. 161). They are to be found principally in Ahmadabad and elsewhere in the Bombay Presidency. For their temples consult p. xcv. Right Cognition means the correct understanding of the Jain theory of the world, which assigns a soul to every individual person or thing. Right Conduct is summed up in five great vows, which include their regard for the minutest creatures of animal life as possessing souls. Only monks can attain Nirvana; nuns cannot reach it, nor can the lay adherents, for whom the vows are relaxed. Jainism has developed by the introduction of a religious cult into their essentially atheistic system. The building of temples and other religious features are excrescences on the pure Jain system, due to the admission of the lay element. The Jains chiefly reside in the trade centres of W. India. Their most famous shrines are at the hill of Parasnath, Palitana, in Kathiawar, and Mount Abu. They differ from Hindus on certain points, while agreeing generally. They maintain pinjrapols, or hospitals, for all decrepit animals. They are great traders and very charitable.

BUDDHIST FESTIVALS

The New Year Festival corresponds to the Makar-Sankranti of the Hindus (see p. lxvi), but in Burma it often takes place as late as April. At a given moment, which is ascertained by the astrologers