Vishnu's wife, Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and beauty, sprang from the froth of the ocean when churned by gods and demons (see Plate 1). An image of her is often to be found in the houses of shop-keepers. She is specially worshipped during the Diwali festival.

Siva is also called Mahadeva, the great god, and his wife, who is known by several names and in several characters, as Parvati, the goddess of beauty (see Plate 1); Durga, or Kali, the terrible (see Plate 1), etc., is also called Devi, the goddess (see Plate 1). The commonest of these is Kali, who requires to be propitiated by sacrifices. Siva holds in his four hands a trident, an antelope, a noose for binding his enemies, and a kind of drum, and wears a tiger's skin about the loins. He is a less human and more mystical god than Vishnu, and is worshipped in the form of a symbol, the lingam, or a bull (Nandi, the Joyous). As destroyer Siva haunts cemeteries and burning - grounds, but his terrible qualities are now more especially associated with his wife, Kali. He is the impersonation of the reproductive power of nature, the word Siva meaning "blessed" or "auspicious." He is also the typical ascetic and self-mortifier; and as a learned philosopher he is the chief god of the priests.

Siva has two sons Ganesh, or Ganapati, and Kartikkeya. Ganesh has a fat body and an elephant's head (see Plate 1). He is a great favourite, being worshipped for good luck or success, and he is invoked at the beginning of every Indian book as a bringer of success, and also because he is the god of learning. Kartikkeya is the god of war, the leader of the hosts of good demons (see Plate 1). In the south of India he is called Skanda or Subrahmanya.

The Hindu theory of metempsychosis or transmigration of souls, arises from the belief that evil proceeds from antecedent evil, and that the penalty must be suffered in succeeding existences. The Hindu makes offerings to the image of a god; he abstains from killing any animal; he gives money to the priests; and does penances which sometimes extend to severe bodily torture. The caste rules have to be strictly kept, and the priests presented with gifts. Great care has to be taken not to eat food cooked by a man of inferior caste; food cooked in water must not be eaten together by people of different castes, and the castes are entirely separated with regard to marriage. The Hindu has a special theory of his own regarding purity and pollution: these words do not simply mean physical

1 In S. India Durga in this form is generally known as Bhawani (vulg. Bowáni).

2 Probably two-thirds of the Hindus worship Siva under this aspect embodied in the lingam.

purity. A sacred thread of cotton is worn by the higher castes. Washing in any holy river, particularly the Ganges, and more especially at Allahabad, Benares, Hardwar, and other exceptionally sacred spots, is of great efficacy in cleansing the soul of impurities. Most of these observances and the worshipping of idols are rejected by the Arya Samaj,1 a reformed body founded by Swami Dyanand (1827-53), which is attracting many of the educated Hindus in N. India. The Arya Samaj accepts the inspiration of the Vedas only; the chief Brahmo Samajists, mainly confined to Bengal (p. lxix), reject them as inspired scriptures.

Travellers should remember that they should not touch any cooking or water-holding utensil belonging to a Hindu, nor disturb Hindus when at their meals; and they should not seek to approach any holy place if objection is made. The most revered of all animals is the cow. Garuda, a mythical being, half man, half bird, is the vehicle of Vishnu, the bull of Siva, the goose of Brahma, the elephant of Indra, the tiger of Durga, the buffalo of Yama, the rat of Ganesh, the ram of Agni, the peacock of Kartikkeya, and the parrot of Kama (the god of love).

As many references to the Mahabharata and Ramayana occur in the Handbook, a brief account, of these two famous epics is given here.

The Mahabharata in its present form was compiled about 400 B.C. to 400 A.D., but, recording events which may be referred to about 1500 B.C., celebrated the battle between the Pandava (Pandu) and Kaurava (Kuru) Princes. The former, five in number, named Yudhishthir, Bhima, and Arjun, sons of one mother, and Nakula and Sahadeva, sons of another, were the offspring of Pandu, ruler of Hastinapur, an ancient city on the Ganges, 60 m. N.W. of Delhi, who ceded the kingdom to his elder, but blind brother, Dhritarashtra. The Kauravas were the sons of Dhritarashtra, and compelled him to send their cousins into exile, during which the marriage of Draupadi, daughter of Drupada, King of the Panchalas, took place, and most of the adventures which led to their names being attached to so many places all over India. At the end of their exile the Pandavas received the Southern portion of the Hastinapur kingdom, and settled at Indraprastha, now Indrapat (p. 289). Having lost this share of their inheritance through gambling with their cousins, the Pandavas again went into exile for twelve years, after which they returned with an army and claimed five "pats," or small towns, of their former kingdom (Indrapat, Tilpat, Sonepat, Bhagpat, and Panipat). Over this claim the great battle ensued, in which, after

1 The number of Arya Samajists in 1921 was 467,578, of Brahmo Samajists only 6388.

eighteen days, nearly all the Kauravas were finally killed, largely through treacherous acts on the part of the Pandavas. The account of the funeral ceremonies of the slain is famous and almost Homeric. The five brothers then resumed their residence at Indrapat, and Yudhishthir celebrated the Aswamedha, or horse sacrifice of imperial rule, on the bank of the Jumna. Finally the brethren and their wives retired to the Himalayas, and sought to reach Mount Meru ; but only the elder brother won admission there; and as he declined to enter when admittance was refused to his sole remaining companion, a faithful dog, he was admitted with his dog.

The Ramayana, ascribed to Valmiki, and probably compiled about the 5th century B.C., related the adventures of Rama, elder son of a King of Oudh, who was passed over in the succession in favour of the son of a younger wife, and banished by his father. Rama accordingly proceeded into exile with his wife Sita to the abode of the hermit Valmiki; and, though the younger brother proved loyal to him on his father's death, he refused to return to Oudh until the term of his banishment had expired. Before this Sita was carried off from their forest abode by Ravana, king of Lankā (Ceylon), inspired by his sister, whose love Rama had rejected. She was rescued from Lankā by Rama with the help of Hanuman, the monkey general, and proved her chastity by the ordeal of fire; but (according to a later tradition) was banished by her husband, and remained sixteen years in exile with Valmiki, after which she was finally reconciled to Rama. Rama is commonly known in India as Ram Chandra; his brother Lakshman constantly appears in the local legends which relate to him.

The Era of Vikramaditya, or Samvat

This era commenced from the first year of the legendary King Vikramaditya, said to have reigned at Ujjain 58 B.C. It is in ordinary use in N. India. The Bikramajit year, as it is usually called, 1981, corresponds to 1923-24.

The Saka Era, or Era of Salivahana

Salivahana was a King who reigned in the S. of India. The Saka era dates from his birth, 78 A.D. This is the era in general use in S. India. The year 1846 of this era corresponds to 1923-24.

The Hindu year has six seasons or ritus: vasanta, "spring"; the hot season grishma, ; varsha, "the rains"; sharada, "the

autumn" (from shri, "to wither "); hemanta, "the winte "the cool season."

с

Table of the Seasons and Months in Sanskrit, Hindi, and English.

Makar Sankranti.-On the 1st of the month Magh (about 12th January) the sun enters the sign Capricorn or Makar. From this day till the arrival of the sun at the N. point of the zodiac the period is called Uttarayana, and from that time till he returns to Makar is Dakshinayana, the former period being lucky and the latter unlucky. At this festival the Hindus bathe, and rub themselves with sesamum oil. They also invite Brahmans, and give them pots full of sesamum seed. They wear new clothes with ornaments, and distribute sesamum seed mixed with sugar.

Vasant Panchami is on the 5th day of the light half of Magh, and is a festival in honour of vasanta or spring.

Sivarat, the night of Siva, is held about the middle or end of February, when Siva is worshipped with flowers during the whole night.

Holi.—A saturnalia at the vernal equinox, celebrated with the squirting or throwing of red or yellow powder over everyone.

Janam Ashtami, held on the 8th of the dark half of Sawan, when Krishna is said to have been born at Gokul (p. 229). Rice may not be eaten on this day, but only fruits and other grains. At night Hindus bathe and worship an image of Krishna, adorning it with tulsi or basil.

Ganesh Chaturthi, held on the 4th of Bhadon, in honour of Ganesh, a clay image of the god being worshipped and Brahmans entertained. The Hindus are prohibited from looking at the moon

on this day, and, if by accident they should see it, they get themselves abused by their neighbours to remove the curse.

Dasahara (Dasaha, or ten days, commonly Dussera), held on the 10th of Asin, in honour of Durga, or Devi, the wife of Siva, who on this day slew the buffalo-headed demon Maheshasur. On this day Rama marched against Ravana, and for this reason the Mahrattas chose it for their expeditions. Branches of the Butea frondosa are offered at the temples. This is an auspicious day for sending children to school. The nine preceding days are called Navaratra, when Brahmans are paid to recite hymns to Durga. The Durga Puja holiday is the principal holiday of the year in Bengal.

Diwali, "feast of lamps," held on the new moon of Kartik, in honour of Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity, when merchants and bankers count their wealth and worship it. It is said that Vishnu killed a giant on that day, and the women went to meet him with lighted lamps. In memory of this lighted lamps are displayed from all houses, and are set afloat in rivers and in the sea, and auguries are drawn from them according as they remain lit or are extinguished.

HINDU RULE IN INDIA

The settlement in North India of the Aryans, whose social system slowly developed into what is now known as Hinduism, took place gradually between 2000 to 900 B.C. The earliest colonies were made in the Panjab and in the valleys of the Jumna and the Ganges. When the work ascribed to Manu assumed its present shape (about 200 or 300 A.D.), the whole space between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas was acknowledged to be Aryan territory. The ideas and customs of the invading race spread all over India; and though the Dravidian South has remained mainly aboriginal, it has been 'gradually absorbed within the Hindu pale. Of both the stocks which combine to make the mass of the Indian people, there were many Ruling Houses, most of which, from the time of Buddha and Alexander, are known to us from one source or another, but hardly one of them has left any substantial memorials, if the Buddhist relics of antiquity and a few Hindu temples be excepted. Indeed, it is one of the curious facts of the East that, while the people are so immutable, the dynasties are extraordinarily ephemeral. The mention of only a few of the principal dynasties which ruled in the fifteen hundred years previous to the Muhammadan invasions would include the Saisunagas, the Nandas and the Mauryas of the Ganges Valley, the Saka dynasty of Kanishka, and the Guptas of Pataliputra. The Gupta period may be justly regarded as the Golden Age of Northern India, and an Emperor of this line, Chandragupta II., surnamed