to the question of the pressure of population on the resources of the country. "We have a population with very considerable natural capabilities of increase. That increase is checked by ignorance of, and indifference to, maternal and infant welfare, by occasional famines, and by epidemics, such as plague, malaria and influenza. We endeavour year by year to minimise the effects of these checks. What if our endeavours should be successful? Can India support a considerable increase of population in the future under any conditions that seem likely to arise? If not, which is to lead the way to economy, the birth-rate or the death-rate, and will the other follow?" Thus asks the present Census Commissioner for India in a paper read before the Royal Society of Arts in February 1923. A complete answer to these questions is not easily framed, but the solution to the problem lies, for some time to come at any rate, in the full development of the country's rich and varied resources, which have as yet been only partially tapped.

PLAGUE

Plague in India made its recent epidemic appearance at Bombay in August 1896, but it was, often widespread during the six centuries of Muhammadan rule. The remarkable variation in the annual mortality is apparent from the figures given here :

Plague is local in its visitations. Many parts of India have been almost entirely free from its ravages. In some parts of the Panjab and the United Provinces the mortality has been so severe as to disorganise the labour market and to affect the level of wages. The mortality in Eastern Bengal and Assam was at no time appreciable-largely, it is believed, because the habits of the people and the structure of their houses are unfavourable to the breeding of rats, while in the Madras Presidency and in Burma the epidemic has never reached serious dimensions. The Government have not relaxed their efforts to discover and apply the most effective remedies. It is now generally agreed (1) that epidemic bubonic plague in man is directly dependent on epidemic plague in rats; (2) that the vehicle of contagion between rat and rat and between rat and man is the plague-infested rat-flea; (3) that bubonic plague is not directly infectious from man to man; and (4) that the life of the plague bacillus outside the bodies of men, animals, or fleas

is of short duration. It is now possible to deal satisfactorily with the disease when effective control can be established over the sanitary conditions; in the case of the Indian army, and in limited areas such as jails, there has been remarkable success. But attempts to establish such control over large areas would involve too great an interference with the habits, prejudices, and sentiments of the people, and the application of measures of proved utility must depend upon the particular circumstances of each locality and upon the character of its inhabitants. In the face of great practical obstacles three principal measures for combating plague are now adopted-"(1) the temporary evacuation of quarters in which plague is prevalent; (2) inoculation with the prophylactic fluid; (3) the systematic destruction of rats, the diminution of the food supply to which they have access, and, in the course of time, such improvement in the structure of houses as shall render them reasonably rat-proof" (Moral and Material Progress Report, 1910-11).

Beyond a possible examination at certain railway stations, travellers are not likely to see anything connected with plague.

SANITATION

Sanitation the care for the health of the population-is as important as any branch of Indian administration, and perhaps more difficult to cope with than any other, owing to the indifference, even the dislike, of the people in general. The whole subject, in various forms, is perpetually receiving the attention of the Government and the officers, civil and medical. It is largely a question

of money, as there is any amount to be done if funds can be provided; the actual works to be undertaken, of course, require consideration and selection in order to produce the greatest benefits for the money available. Practical sanitation differs in urban and rural areas. In the largest towns great systems of filtered watersupply, sewerage, drainage, and conservancy have been introduced, and are constantly being extended and improved; in some important municipalities pure water-supply, sewerage, and drainage schemes are in working order, and conservancy, of course, in all municipalities. In villages tanks are generally set apart and protected for drinkingwater; septic tanks are sometimes utilised, and bazars are improved ; in rural areas drainage and conservancy are too often neglected or minimised. Schemes are sometimes undertaken for the reclamation of insanitary areas in towns and municipalities. Outbreaks of particular epidemics are met by special measures. Hospitals, dispensaries, and asylums are maintained in most places under Government or municipal management. There are Central and Provincial Sanitary

Commissioners and Departments, and Sanitary Boards with staffs of medical officers, inspectors, sanitary engineers, whose duty it is to prescribe sanitary measures so far as possible, observe the occurrences and facts of any diseases, and propose remedies. There are three main classes of fatal disease-specific fevers, diseases affecting the abdominal organs, and lung diseases. Much of the sickness and mortality is due to deficient powers of resistance and to insanitary habits and surroundings. Fever is generally understood to mean malarial fever, but many causes of death and many diseases much more fatal than malarial fever are included under the common heading under which more than half the deaths are recorded. Cholera is never absent, but is greatly reduced everywhere by proper precautions in respect of the water and milk supplies. Much attention is being paid to the subject of malaria and its connection with the breeding of certain mosquitoes in stagnant water; active campaigns are sometimes undertaken for the distribution of quinine and the extermination of mosquitoes by drainage, petrolage, etc., but much remains to be done. The health of the armies, both European and Indian, has been greatly improved of late years, as experience has been gained; and the same may be said of the jail population. The registration of births and deaths cannot be accepted as altogether complete or accurate; so far as they were recorded in 1922 they showed a general birth-rate of 3178 per 1000 against a death-rate of 24'03; and during the previous five years a mean birth-rate of 3391 and a mean death-rate of 38:42 per 1000. Laboratories and Institutes have been established for research, special enquiries have been undertaken, and scientific publications issued for the purpose of improving the public health by combating disease in every form; but climatic conditions, the habits and customs of the people, and the insufficiency of money, are permanent obstacles to the attainment of anything like complete success.

THE COUNTESS OF DUFFERIN'S FUND

The Countess of Dufferin's Fund, or National Association for providing Female Medical Aid for the Women of India, was established in 1885 by the Countess of Dufferin. The Central Committee of the Fund is presided over by the Viceroy's wife as Lady President, and has its headquarters in Delhi and Simla. The Secretaries are always glad to receive visitors and to give help and information to those who wish to visit hospitals and inform themselves on the subject of medical aid for Indian women. In each presidency or province there is a Presidency or Provincial Committee, which works in co-operation with the Central Committee.

Several Local Committees affiliated to the Provincial Committees are scattered through the country, and many of these have founded and are carrying on, with assistance from local bodies, zenana hospitals officered by women, where parda ladies attend for treatment, and where special attention is paid to midwifery and diseases of women and children. These hospitals are all interesting, and some in the larger cities are excellent and up-to-date institutions, although still retaining special Indian characteristics. They are always open to inspection (with due regard to parda), and visits to those in Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Delhi, Lahore and Karachi would well repay visitors who are interested in Indian women and the many problems concerning them.

The income from investments of the Central Committee in 1922 was about Rs.40,000. Since 1921 there is an annual subsidy of Rs. 370,000 from the Government of India for carrying on the "Women's Medical Service." The prospects of women doctors in India have been much improved thereby, and most of the principal women's hospitals are under members of this Service. Many midwives are being trained under the auspices of the Victoria Memorial Scholarships Fund, which was collected in 1902 by Lady Curzon. One of the most interesting developments of recent years regards medical aid for women is the establishment of a Medical College for Indian women at Delhi, five of the professorial staff being provided from the ranks of the Women's Medical Service. (See Lady Hardinge College.)

as

The Annual Report of the Central Committee can be obtained by application to the Honorary Secretary, Countess of Dufferin's Fund, Viceroy's Camp, India. In 1920 Lady Chelmsford founded the All India League for Maternity and Child Welfare. A School for training Health Visitors has been opened at Delhi. A visit to the Delhi centre would greatly interest visitors. Information can be obtained from the Secretary, Lady Chelmsford League, Simla (summer), Delhi (winter).

LADY HARDINGE MEDICAL COLLEGE FOR WOMEN.

The Lady Hardinge College was initiated by the late Lady Hardinge, who recognised the great need for the training of Indian women in medicine, and the difficulties in the way of those who study in male colleges. By her efforts a sum of about 25 lakhs was collected, many generous donations being given by Indian Princes. The College was opened in new Delhi in February 1916 by the late Viceroy, Lord Hardinge. The Principal is Miss G. J. Campbell,

M.D., Ch.B., Glasgow, who is assisted by a staff of nine women professors, all highly qualified in medicine or science. The Government of India contributes 1 lakh annually to the maintenance of the College. The remainder of the upkeep is met by students' fees and endowments.

Behind the College are hostels for European, Hindu, Muhammadan, Parsi and Sikh students. The Lady Hardinge Hospital adjoining provides clinical material for the students who are being prepared for the M.B., B.S. degrees of the Panjab University. This Hospital was opened on 17th March 1917 by Lady Chelmsford, C.I., at an interesting parda ceremony.

The College is situated about 3 m. from the Delhi Railway Station. It is an institution unique of its kind and well worthy of a visit from those who are interested in Indian women and the problems which affect them.

THE INDIAN ADMINISTRATION (UP TO 1923-24)

The supreme authority in India, subject to the Secretary of State, is vested in the Viceroy and Governor-General, and his Council of six ordinary Members, and one extraordinary Member-viz., the Commander-in-Chief-who form "The Government of India." These seven Members are in charge of the Home, Industries and Labour, Finance, Railways and Commerce, Education Health and Lands, Legislative, and Army Departments. At the heads of each of these Departments and of the Foreign and Political Departments, is a Secretary to the Government of India.

Under the Home Department are included the subjects of the Civil Service, Justice, Police, Prisons, Lunatic Asylums, and the like; under the Education Health and Lands Department, are Education, Local Self-Government, Public Health, Land Revenue, Surveys, Forests, Agricultural Development, Famine; under the Railways and Commerce Department are Trade and Shipping; under the Industries and Labour Department are Factories, Mines, Public Works, Posts and Telegraphs; under Finance are Taxation, Currency, Mints, Banking, while Customs and Excise are administered by a Board of Inland Revenue under this Department. There are at present three Indians on the Executive Council of the GovernorGeneral.

The Indian Constitution has no parallel either in terms of English politics or in terms of Federal Governments. The Indian legislature, under the reformed scheme of Government, is composed of two Chambers-the Legislative Assembly, and the Council of State.