to write a history of the world and do but scant justice to the contribution of a race that is destined to play its part once again in the upbuilding of a new world.

The discovery of Sanskrit and of Vedic literature in the 18th century has helped toward the solution of many an ancient riddle. Panini, who according to Max Müller was the greatest grammarian that the world has ever seen, laid the foundation of the study of comparative philology-at least as early as 700 B. C., which date is assigned him by V. A. Smith, who is by no means sympathetic to India. The science of anthropology may with profit investigate in the living laboratory of Hindusthan.

Since the 18th Century, during the period of England's close contact with her, India has produced a few rare intellects—not commensurate with her potentiality, one must admit. When the history of world culture is written, the name of Professor Ramanujam of Madras (died 1921) will figure prominently in the department of mathematics. He has made an important contribution to the theory of numbers and the Mss. he left behind him are being worked over by Professor G. H. Hardy of England. Meghnath Saha is another illustrious name widely known to the scientific world. His special field of work is astro-physics and his theories on atoms are being widely discussed by the leading scientists of the world. In physical-chemistry, J. C. Ghose's work on solution has been recognized by men. of the calibre of Professor Arrhenius. These men and others less conspicuous are connected with Pallit's Research Institute of Calcutta, which is being directed by Professor Raman and Sir P. C. Ray. Sir J. C. Bose's work in plant-physiology marks a distinct advance in that science and his Research Institute, which is "open to all the world," promises genuine contributions in the future as well. The Nobel Prize recipient of 1913, Rabindra Nath Tagore, has already made a name for himself in the world of letters and his University at Bolpur (near Calcutta), called Shanti-Niketana-the Abode of Peace--is in truth the meeting

point of the cultures of the East and the West. No man of our times is more certain of immortality than Mahatma Gandhi. With Gandhi as her contribution to humanity, India need not blush in comparison with any of the modern nations of the world.

Having fairly glimpsed at India's contribution in the realm of ideas-scientific pursuits, philosophical disquisitions, religious thought-we may now envisage her life in matters social, political, economic, artistic.

VI. INDIAN SOCIETY

The records of ancient India embodied in the marvelous Sanskrit literature, go to show that there existed, if not an actual Golden Age, at least a state of society not far short of a golden age. The external evidences also uncover this fact. The British historian, Thornton, by no means partial to India, describes Ancient India in the following glowing terms: "Ere yet the Pyramids looked down upon the Valley of the Nilewhen Greece and Italy, those cradles of European civilization, nursed only the tenants of a wildernessIndia was the seat of wealth and grandeur. A busy population had covered the land with the marks of its industry; rich crops of the most coveted productions of Nature annually rewarded the toil of husbandmen; skillful artisans converted the rude produce of the soil into fabrics of unrivalled delicacy and beauty; and architects and sculptors joined in constructing works, the solidity of which has not, in some instances, been overcome by the evolution of thousands of years. * The ancient state of India must have been one of extraordinary magnificence." Nor is this mere rhetoric. It is an historical fact that the part of India included in the Empire of Darius (6th Century B. C.), Afghanistan and the Northwestern Punjab, was the "richest" province of all his dominions. The Greek observers of the pre-Christian era testify to the great size and architectural beauty of many of the cities of Northern India. Rhys Davis in his "Buddhist India" says that as far back as the middle of the

*

seventh century B. C. the villagers had "sufficiency for their needs." "There was security; there was independence there were no landlords and no paupers." The same authority goes on to say that the mass of people "held it a degradation to which only dire misfortune would drive them, to work for hire." Add to these facts that "there was little, if any, crime," and you have a complete picture of the Golden Age of India.

But British historians, by and large, would have us believe that the Indians were poor, backward, uncivilized and degraded when the civilizing force of Britain collided with the shores of India. This misstatement is, to say the least, mischievous and arrogant. In his book, "Empire in Asia," Mr. Torrens, M. P., says: "There never was an error more groundless than that which represented the ancient systems of Indian rule as decrepit or degrading despotisms, untempered by public opinion. It accords too well with the arrogance of national self-love and seems too easily to lull the conscience of aggression to pretend that those whom it has wronged were superstitious slaves, and that they must have so remained but for the disinterested violence of foreign civilization introduced by it, sword in hand. This pretentious theory is confuted by the admissions of men whose knowledge cannot be disputed and whose authority cannot be denied."

B. G. Tilak (1856-1920), in his celebrated book written in prison, entitled "Orion or Researches into the Antiquity of the Vedas," makes some startling propositions. Mr. Tilak's researches, carried out in a scientific spirit, have commanded the respect of European and American scholars. On astronomical grounds, he argues temperately that "the Aditi, or pre-Orion period, the earliest in the Aryan civilization, may be placed roughly between 6000 and 4000 B. C., that the Orion period, from about 4000 to 2500 B. C., was the most important in the history of Aryan civilization, the separation of the Parsees having taken place between 3000 and 2500 B. C.; that the Taittiriya Samhita

and several of the Brahmanas (portions of the Vedas), should be assigned to the third period, from 2500 to 1400 B. C., during which the hymns had already become antiquated and unintelligible; that the fourth and last period of the old Sanskrit literature extended from 1400 to 500 B. C. and saw the composition of the Sutras and the evolution of the philosophical literature."

To confine ourselves to historical records only, we shall omit the discussion of the pre-Mauryan period, extending from the earliest times to 322 B. C. The Maurya period lasted from 322 to 185 B. C. and produced two of the greatest monarchs of the world in Chandragupta and his grandson, Emperor Asoka (who ruled from 273 to 232 B. C.). During this period, Indian civilization and prosperity attained their topmost mark. Alexander the Great did not even touch "the fringe of Indian civilization." Then came the Kushan ascendancy in the North and Andhra ascendancy in the South, extending roughly from the 2nd century B. C. to the 3rd century A. D. During this period, "the whole of the southern peninsula under the Andhra dynasty was in direct communication with Rome, while the conquests in Northern India tended still further to open up trade with the Roman Empire, so that Roman gold poured into all parts of India in payment for her silks, spices, gems and dye-stuffs." Thus we find the Roman historian, Pliny (about 77 A. D.), complaining that there was "no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire of a hundred million sesterces (£1,000,000, i. e., $5,000,000)

so dearly do we pay for our luxury and our women." In his "Early History of India," the late Mr. Vincent Smith says, "Ancient Tamil literature and the Greek and Roman authors prove that in the first two centuries of the Christian era the ports on the Coromandal or Chola coast enjoyed the benefits of active commerce with both West and East. The Chola fleets did not

"A History of Indian Shipping and Maritime Activity," by Professor Radhakumud Mookerji.

confine themselves to coasting voyages, but boldly crossed the Bay of Bengal to the mouths of the Ganges and the Irrawaddy and the Indian Ocean to the islands of the Malay Archipelago."

Then we pass on to the period of expansion of Northern India under the Guptas and Harshavardhana, extending from the 4th to the 7th century A. D. The Hindus colonized the Eastern parts of Bengal, the Kalinga coast and Coromandel-even parts of Burma. and Malacca were colonized. Houen Tsang, the most famous of the many Chinese travellers that visited India at this time, has left valuable records of his impressions of the highly civilized state of the land. In the middle of the 7th century, the center of activity shifted to the South under the Chalukyas and the Cholas. The maritime intercourse of India with the East and the West was uninterrupted. The fame of Pulakesi II (608-42) spread far and wide, and the King of Persia exchanged embassies with him. The Chola dynasty remained ascendant in the south till the Mohammedan conquest of Northern India in the beginning of the 11th century.

Thus, in the pre-Mohammedan period, India was rich, enormously rich. Pliny's complaint notwithstanding, Roman gold steadily poured into India from the beginning of the Christian era, if not from earlier times. India had also commercial relations with Persia and the people lived happy, contented, adventurous lives. "The old prosperity of India," said Major J. B. Keith (Asiatic Quarterly Review, July, 1910), "was based on the sound principle, which is, that after clothing and feeding your own people, then of your surplus abundance give to the stranger."

Under the Mauryas (4th Century B. C.) elaborate regulations were framed by the municipal commissions to prevent discomfort to foreign visitors, travelers and businessmen. "All foreigners were closely watched by officials, who provided suitable lodgings, escorts and in case of need, medical attendance." Mr. Smith goes on to remark, "the existence of these

As