CHAPTER XII.

HISTORY OF THE STATES THAT AROSE FROM THE DISMEMBERMENT OF

THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.

SECTION I.-The History of Macedon and Greece from the Battle of Ipsus to the Roman Conquest.

FROM B. C. 301 TO B. c. 146.

AFTER the fatal battle of Ip'sus, Demétrius fled to Greece, hoping to obtain a refuge from the Athenians, whom he had essentially served in the days of his prosperity; but the harbors and gates of the city were closed against him. Having obtained, however, the restoration of the ships and money he had deposited there, he established himself in the Peloponnésus, and commenced a desultory naval war against Lysim'achus. Seleúcus, who now transferred to Lysim'achus the jealousy of which the fallen fortunes of Demétrius could no longer be an object, sought an alliance with his ancient enemy, and married Stratonice. the daughter of Demétrius, and this union was equally advantageous to both parties.

Cassan'der did not long survive the establishment of his power: on his death (B. c. 296), he left Macedónia to his three sons, of whom Philip speedily followed his father to the grave. The survivors quarrelled about the division of their inheritance. Antipater murdered his mother Thessaloníca, on account of the favor she showed to his brother Alexander. The vengeance of his brother being, however, supported by the general feeling of the Macedonians, he fled to the court of his father-in-law Lysimachus, where he died prematurely. Dreading the resentment of the Thracian monarch, Alexander sought the aid of Pyr'rhus, king of Epírus, and Demétrius Poliorcétes, who both entered Macedon, in the hope of gaining some advantage. The ambition of Demétrius soon provoked the jealousy of the son of Cassan'der, he grew jealous of his ally, and attempted to remove so formidable a competitor by stratagem; but he was counterplotted and slain. The vacant throne was seized by Demétrius, who possessed, in addition to Macedon, Thessaly, a great portion of southern Greece, with the provinces of Attica and Meg'aris, to which after a fierce resistance, he added Boótia. He might have enjoyed this extensive realm in tranquillity, but his restless ambition led him to form plans for the recovery of his father's power in Asia.

Seleúcus and Ptolemy, in great alarm at the sudden appearance of a

rival, formidable by the revived influence of his father's claim, and still more by his personal qualities, roused Lysimachus, king of Thrace, and Pyrrhus, king of Epírus, to attack him at the same time. The Macedonians, terrified by such a confederacy, mutinied; and Demétrius fled, disguised as a common soldier, into the Peloponnésus, which was governed by his son Antig'onus (B. c. 287). Pyr'rhus obtained possession of the vacant kingdom; but after a brief reign of seven months, he was forced to yield to the superior power or popularity of Lysim'achus, and retire to his native Epírus. Demétrius had, in the meantime, sailed to Asia, with the hope of seizing the provinces belonging to Lysimachus (B. c. 286); but he was driven into Cilícia, and forced to surrender to his father-in-law Seleúcus, by whom he was detained in prison until the day of his death (B. c. 284). His son Antig'onus, however, maintained himself in the Peloponnésus, waiting with patience a favorable opportunity of restoring the fortunes of his family.

Lysimachus was unfortunate in his domestic relations: at the instigation of his queen, the wicked Arsinoë, he put to death his gallant son Agathoc'les, upon which Cassan'dra, the widow of the young prince, with her brother Ptolemy Ceraúnus, fled to the court of Seleúcus, and stimulated that prince to war. Lysimachus was defeated and slain (B. C. 282); but in the following year Seleúcus was murdered by Ptólemy Ceraúnus who availed himself of the treasures of his victim, and the yet remaining troops of Lysim'achus, to usurp the throne of Macedon. In the same year that Seleúcus fell (B. c. 281); Pyrrhus invaded Italy as an ally of the Tarentines; the Achæan league was revived in southern Greece; and several Asiatic provinces, especially Cappadócia, Arménia, and Pon'tus, in the north, and Par'thia and Bac'tria in the east, became independent kingdoms.

The revolts in Asia against the successors of Alexander, appear to have arisen at least as much from religious as political motives. It was part of the great conqueror's plan to impress a uniform character on all the lands he subdued, and in every one of them to constitute society afresh on the Grecian model. This was called an effort to Hellenize the east. But the Asiatics clung obstinately to their institutions, whether good or bad, as they have done in all subsequent ages, and Alexander's successors in central and western Asia, by assailing the religion of the people, provoked fierce insurrections, which led to the entire loss of Persia and the perilous insurrection of the Jews under the gallant Maccabees.

Ptolemy Ceraúnus did not long retain the crown of Macedon, which he had procured by treachery and assassination. An innumerable multitude of Gauls, who had, about two centuries before, settled in Pannónia, driven by want, or perhaps instigated by their restless disposition, poured into Thrace and Macedon, desolating the entire country with the reckless fury of ferocious savages. Ceraunus led an army against them, but was defeated and slain (B. c. 279). In the following year, his successor Sosthenes met the same fate; and the Gauls, under the guidance of their Brenn, or chief, advanced into southern Greece. The Athenians, aided by the Etolians, made a brave defence at the straits of Thermop'yla; but the latter being called home to defend their own country, invaded by a Gallic division, the Athenians were unable

any longer to defend the pass, and the main body of the Gauls, entering Phócis, marched to plunder Del'phi. Here, however, the success of the invaders ended: the detachment sent against Etolia was cut to pieces by a nation scarcely less ferocious than the Gauls themselves; and the main body, after suffering severely from cold and storms in the defiles of Mount Parnas'sus, was almost annihilated by the enthusiastic defenders of the national temple. The miserable remnant of the invaders fell back upon a fresh body of their countrymen, with whom they passed over into Asia; and after inflicting many calamities on the states of Anatólia, obtained possession of the province which received from them the name of Galátia.

Antig'onus Gonátas, the son of Demétrius Poliorcétes, deriving his name from Góni in Thessaly, where he had been educated, obtained the vacant throne of Macedon, after a contest of three years with various competitors, and transmitted it to his posterity; but he did not, like his predecessors, possess the sovereignty of southern Greece, whose independence had been secured by the Achæan league. This association had been originally revived by the towns of Pat'ræ, Dy'me, Tríte, and Pháræ; but it did not become formidable until it was joined by Sic'yon (B. c. 251), after the noble Arátus had freed that city from tyrants.

The return of Pyr'rhus from Italy was followed by a new revolution in Macedon; the mercenaries revolted to the Epirote monarch, and Antig'onus was driven from the throne. He retired into southern Greece, whither he was soon followed by his rival, who had been solicited to place Cleon'ymus on the throne of Lacedæ'mon. Pyr'rhus professed that his chief object in entering the Peloponnésus was to deliver the cities from the yoke of Antig'onus; but his actions were inconsistent with his declarations, for he ravaged the lands of Lacónia, and made an attempt to surprise Spar'ta. Being defeated in this enterprise, he turned his arms against Ar'gos, and was admitted into the city by some of his secret partisans. But the Argives opened another gate to Antig'onus, who entered with a chosen body of troops. A fierce struggle ensued, which was terminated by the death of Pyr'rhus. An Argive woman, whose son he was about to slay, struck him with a tile from the roof of the house; he fell from his horse, and was trampled to death in the press (B. c. 271). After a short contest with Alexander, the son of Pyrrhus, Antig'onus regained the throne of Macedon, and retained it to his death.

The Achæan league was joined by Corinth, Træzéne, and Epidaúrus, when Aratus, by a bold attempt, had driven the Macedonian garrison from the Corinthian citadel. It was finally joined by Athens (B. C. 229), and continually grew in strength, though opposed by the Macedonians and Etolians. So rapidly did the power of the confederacy increase, that the king of Egypt sought its alliance, and some of the states north of the Peloponnésus solicited to be admitted as members.

On the death of Antig'onus Gonátas (B. C. 243), his son Demétrius II. became king of Macedon. The ten years of his reign were spent in war with the Etolians, who had formed a confederacy similar to that of the Achæans. After his death (B. c. 233), Antig'onus Dóson, cousin to the late monarch, succeeded to the throne, nominally as guardian of the infant prince Philip II., just as a revolution in the Peloponnésus

was about to effect a great and important change in the political aspect of Greece.

The ancient laws of Lycurgus were only nominally observed in Spar'ta the plunder of foreign countries had introduced wealth and luxury; a law sanctioning the alienation of landed estates had effaced the ancient equality of property; and the gradual decrease of the ruling caste of Spartan families had rendered the oligarchy as weak as it was odious. A bold plan of reform, including a fresh division of landed property, an abolition of debts, and the weakening of the power of the Aph'ori, was brought forward by King A'gis III. (B. c. 244): it was at first very successful, but the unsteadiness of Agis, and the opposition of the other king, Leon'idas, brought about a counter-revolution (B. C. 241). A'gis was strangled by the order of the Eph'ori, and his mother and grandmother shared the same fate.

Leon'idas compelled the widow of A'gis to marry his youthful son Cleom'enes, not foreseeing that she was likely to inspire the prince with the principles of her former husband. Soon after his accession to the throne, Cleom'enes, relying on the reputatiou he had acquired by defeating the efforts of Arátus to force Sparta into the Achæan league, renewed the reforms of A'gis (B. c. 227); and, as he was unscrupulous in the use of the means requisite to effect his object, he speedily overthrew the Eph'ori, and opened the right of citizenship to all the Lacedæmonians. He then turned his arms against the Achæans (B. C. 224), compelled Ar'gos and Corinth to secede from the league, defeated the confederates at Dy'me, and reduced Arátus to such difficulties that he was forced to solicit assistance from the king of Macedon. Antig'onus II. readily embraced so favorable an opportunity for restoring the influence of his family in southern Greece. He entered the Peloponnésus, and, after some minor operations, he obtained a complete victory over Cleom'enes at Sellásia, on the borders of Lacónia, which placed Spar'ta at his mercy (B. c. 222). Cleom'enes fled to Egypt; the Macedonians, advancing from the field of battle, took possession of Lacedæmon without a blow, but they used their victory moderately, and its ancient constitution was restored. Antig'onus did not long survive his victory; he died generally lamented by the Greeks (B. c. 221), and was succeeded by Philip II., son of Demétrius.

The Etolians were greatly dissatisfied with the peace that followed the battle of Sellásia. No sooner had they received intelligence of the death of Antig'onus, than, despising the youth and inexperience of his successor Philip, they commenced a series of piratical attacks on the Messenians and Macedonians, which speedily rekindled the flames of war. Arátus was sent to expel the Etolians from Messénia, and entered into a convention with their leaders for the purpose; after which he imprudently dismissed the greater part of his army. The Etolians took advantage of his weakness to attack him unexpectedly, and then, having ravaged the greater part of the Peloponnésus, they returned home laden with plunder.

Philip, being invited to place himself at the head of the Achæan league, went to Corinth, where a general assembly of the states was held. A declaration of war against the Ætolians was voted by all the southern Greeks, except the Spartans and Eleans, who were both ad

verse to the league; and active preparations for hostilities were made on both sides. While these affairs engaged attention throughout Greece, little regard was paid to the commercial war between the Byzantines and Rhodians, in consequence of the heavy tolls exacted by the former from all vessels entering the Euxine sea (B. c. 222). It terminated in favor of the latter, and the Byzantines were forced to abolish the onerous duties.

Cleom'enes, in his exile, was a careful observer of the transactions in Greece, and perceiving that the Lacedæmonians, according to his original policy, were preparing to join the Etolians against the Achæans, he believed that an opportunity was afforded for recovering his hereditary throne. The young king of Egypt, dreading his talents and his temper, was unwilling to see him restored to power, and therefore not only refused him assistance, but even detained him from attempting the enterprise with his own hired servants. But Cleom'enes was scarcely less formidable in Alexan'dria, than he would have been if restored to his former power in Spar'ta, for he had won the favor of the Grecian mercenaries in the Egyptian service, who showed a strong attachment to his person. The ministers of the young Ptolemy caused him to be arrested, but he baffled the vigilance of his guards, and followed by his friends rushed through the streets of Alexan'dria, exhorting the multitude to strike for freedom. No one responded to his call; the royal forces prepared to surround him, and Cleom'enes, dreading to encounter the tortures of the cruel Egyptians, committed suicide. Thus perished a king, who, in spite of many grievous faults, was the last hope of his country, and the only person capable of restoring the supremacy of Spar'ta and the Peloponnésus.

The war between Philip and the Etolians was conducted with great obstinacy and cruelty on both sides; Philip's progress was aided by his fleet, which soon rose into importance; but it was also greatly checked by the intrigues of Apel'les and other wretches who envied Arátus, and weakened the influence of his prudent counsels. The increasing power of the Romans and Carthaginians, who were already contending for the empire of the world in the second Punic war, at length inclined all the Greeks to peace, for they felt that it would be soon necessary to defend the independence of Greece either against Rome or Carthage, whichever should prove victorious. A treaty was accordingly concluded between the general assembly of the Ætolian states at Naupac'tus and the representatives of the Achæan confederacy (B. C. 217): Philip attended in person, and greatly contributed to the success of the negotiations.

The Macedonian monarch possessed the ambition, but not the military talents of Pyr'rhus. Like the great Epirote, he hoped to become the conqueror of Italy, and entered into a strict alliance with Han'nibal, who had already invaded the peninsula. About the same time, to get rid of the remonstrances of Arátus, who frequently warned the king of the dangers that would result from his indulgence in ambitious projects, he caused the old general to be poisoned: a crime which filled all Greece with horror and indignation.

The Romans resolved to find Philip so much employment in Greece, that he should not have leisure to attack Italy. They prevailed on the