to think Avanda was "somewhere in the Khairpur territory". 1

In the statement that it was in a monastery here that the Buddha gave bhikshus permission to wear shoes the expression rendered by "shoes" is Ki-foh-si ( * ₪). This term was taken by the native annotator to be a foreign one, and he interpreted it as meaning "boots" or "shoes", an interpretation which Julien naturally adopted. But the third character si is the common Chinese name for "sandal" or "shoe", and Ki-foh is a qualifying adjective. What this word means, however, is not clear, and we are not certain that the first character is correct. Instead of it one text of the Life, and the C text of the Records, have chêng (), which is apparently only a printer's mistake for chi, and the Fang-chih has hu()-foh. Considered as a foreign word Ki-foh has been regarded as another way of writing Ki-p'a (E), a foreign term denoting felt or coarse woollen cloth, and supposed to be the Turkish Kebe with that meaning. But this does not suit the circumstances and cannot be accepted. If the hu-foh of the Fang-chih be the correct reading this may represent a word like the Tibetan Kō-ba which means "leather". But it is possible that Ki-foh is merely a native term not written in the usual form, and meaning "secured by strings on straps". The proper form of expression and one frequently used is Ki (or or )-foh which means "bound" or "attached" literally and figuratively. The Ki-foh-si would thus be "sandals with securing garters." This agrees with the Indian name for sandal which is upāhanā from upa and anah, "to tie" or bind. The sandals originally permitted to the Buddhist Brethren were probably not of leather, but of a vegetable material, although some Vinaya texts expressly state that they were of leather. Those allowed to the Brethren of Northern cold countries were of leather, and were "continued" up the legs by stripes of cloth or leather. An illustration and some very

THE SAMMATIYA SCHOOL.

261

interesting observations will be found in Mr. W. Simpson's "Identification of the Sculptured Tope at Sanchi". Now there is apparently no justification in the Buddhist canon for Yuan-chuang's statement that it was in Avanḍa that the Master granted to his disciples the indulgence of wearing foot-coverings of any kind. According to most of the Vinaya texts it was at Rājagaha that Buddha on the request of Śronavimsatikoți of Champa gave the bhikshus permission to wear single shoes, sandals with a single leather sole according to the Chinese texts. Afterwards also at Rājagaha Buddha, yielding to the petition brought by Kotikarna from Avanti, a country hard, rough (and very thorny), allowed the Brethren of that land to wear several-fold sandals of leather. 2

As to the other statement in the passage before us, that it was in Avanḍa the Buddha gave permission to the bhikshus to wear double or padded garments, this also is not in the Buddhist scriptures. In the Vinaya we read of the Buddha experiencing great cold one night near Vaiśāli, and instituting in the morning the threefold dress of the professed disciple. 3

The A-fan-t'u of our author cannot be identified with the Avanti of the canon which is in some books a country in the south, in some in the east, and in some it is a vague border-land. But our Avanḍa may be the Avantaka which gave its name to the Sammatīya school, or a branch of the school. This sub-school had ceased to exist before Vasubandhu's time, but we note that the pilgrim represents the majority of the Brethren in the country as being Sammatīyas.

2 Vin. Mah. V, 1 and 13; Pi-ni-mu-ching, ch. 5 (No. 1138); Sar. Vin. P'i-ko-shih, ch. 1.

3 Vin. Mah. VIII, 13; Seng-ki-lü, ch. 23; Ssŭ-fên-lü, ch. 38, 39. Rockhill, 'Life' pp. 182, 184; Wass. Bud. S. 85; Shih-pa-pu-lun (No. 1284).

We next read that from Avanḍa the pilgrim went north-east above 900 li to Fa-la-na. This country he describes as being over 4000 li, and its capital over twenty li, in circuit; it was well populated and was subject to Kapis. The country abounded in hills and woods, and had regular crops with a cool climate. The people were bold, fierce, and low-minded; their language had a little resemblance to that of "Mid-India"; their religion comprehended orthodoxy and heterodoxy, and they had no love for knowledge. There were some tens of Buddhist monasteries of which many were in ruins, and there were above 300 Brethren all Mahāyānists; there were also five Deva-Temples chiefly belonging to the Pasupatas. Near the capital on the south side was an old monastery where the Buddha had preached and gladdened and stimulated mortals; beside it were places where the Four Past Buddhas had sat and walked for exercise. The pilgrim adds that he was informed by local report that a adjoining this country on the west was the Ki-kiang-na (†) country among mountain valleys, with local chiefs and no supreme sovereign. This country abounded in sheep and horses, including a breed of excellent horses very large and highly prized by

other lands.

The Fa-la-na of this passage may be restored as Varana (Julien) or as Varṇa. St. Martin thinks the country corresponds to the modern Vanèh in the middle part of the river Gumal's course. Cunningham confidently identifies Varana with Banu (Bannu) in the Kuram river district; he also regards it as identical with Fa-hsien's Po-na. 1 The Ki-kiang-na of the above passage has been supposed to be an unknown district called Kaikānān and Kikān, and conjectured by Cunningham to be "somewhere in the vicinity of Pishin and Kwetta". But all these proposed identifications by Cunningham are open to serious exceptions, and they do not seem to be reconcileable among themselves. According to the Life when the pilgrim left Avanda he proceeded east 700 li, and crossing the Indus, entered Sindh: from that he went back to Nālandā in Magadha, and thence to Prayaga as has been related in

1 Julien, III, p. 414; A. G. I. p. 84-86; Fo-kuo-chi, ch. 14.

a previous chapter. From Prayāga he resumed his journey, and passing through Jalandhara, Simhapura, and Takshaśilā came to the Indus again, and went on to the Capital of Lan-p'o (Laghman). From this last a journey of 15 days due south brought him to the Varana of this passage. In a very mountainous country 50 li or 10 miles would probably be an average day's journey, and the river Gumal is above 150 miles due south from Laghman.

CHAPTER XVIII.

(CHUAN XII.)

TSAO-KU-TA.

At the end of Chuan XI the pilgrim tells us that from Fa-lana he continued his journey north-west, crossed mountains and wide river-courses, passed small towns, and emerging from India after a journey of above 2000 li, reached the country of Tsaoku-t'a. The next Chuan begins by describing this country as being above 7000 li in circuit and its capital Ho-si-na as being above 30 li in circuit; there was another capital named Ho-sa-lo of the same extent with Ho-si-na, and these two cities had strong elevated situations. The mountains with their river-courses stood high;1 the cultivated lands had a high brisk situation; the crops were regular; early wheat was abundant, and vegetation was prolific; the land produced saffron and asa-foetida; the latter plant grew in the valley of the Lo-mo-yin-tu. In the city Hosa-lo there were springs from which issued streams of water which the farmers used for irrigation. The climate was very cold, and frost and snow abounded; the people were excitable and deceitful; they were fond of accomplishments and were clever without intelligence (but according to B and D texts, without excellence); their writing and their spoken language differed from those of other countries. They paid worship to gods and also reverenced Buddha, the Canon, and the Order; there were some

1 "The mountains with their river-courses stood high." The original here is shan-chuan-yin-lin ( ), that is "mountains and rivers (or river-courses) of great elevation". But instead of yinlin some texts have the reading yin-chên () making the clause mean "there is a succession of hill and valley". In this description as in several other passages of the Records it is not clear whether the pilgrim uses chuan in its classical sense of a large river, or to denote a river-course or valley.