ceremonies in themselves, and were religious and ethical in their nature and influence. In the middle of the fifth century the comedy was introduced, in which the characters were representations of real personages drawn from contemporary life and treated with the greatest license. The comedy was essentially a comment on everyday life in Athens, but a comment made with the greatest freedom. In it were permitted the most scurrilous attacks on the character of citizens, on religion, on civic institutions. In respect to individuals greater freedom of speech was allowed at Athens than would be tolerated in any modern time. This freedom was undoubtedly abused, and hence arises the difficulty in using such sources. The last half of the fifth century was the period of the old comedy; the fourth century includes the period of the middle comedy, the two practically constituting the period under discussion.

Such profound changes as those indicated could not take place without affecting education in every aspect. These changes constitute the transition to the new education.

The Sources. The classic reference to this change is the Clouds of Aristophanes, and in the passage which contains the contest between the Just and the Unjust Causes there is the best presentation of this conflict from the conservative point of view that is to be found. It is, however, so obviously a presentation from one point of view that its interpretation is subject to many difficulties. The general view presented is undoubtedly that of the conservatives who held to the old practices. In some respects it expresses also the views held by the masses at that time (423 B.C.) in regard to the new teachers. The

representation of Socrates had much to do with the hostile attitude of the populace toward him, though his death was not decreed until twenty-four years later.

Aristophanes lived from 444 to 381 B.C., practically the period of this transition. He is considered the greatest writer of Greek comedies. The Clouds is usually considered to be his greatest work, though when presented in 423 B.C. it received only third prize. Aristophanes was considered by the Greeks, by Plato among the rest, as one of their greatest men. His general attitude is one of highest patriotism and of regard for civic uprightness and decency. While a comedian in the form of his art, he was a moralist in purpose and influence. The great number of passages in his writings that are utterly unworthy, according to modern criteria of taste, are to be explained, not only by the general character of his age, which in matters of morality was much below the standard of modern times, but also by the license of the comedy and of the Dionysiac festivals. Aristophanes' intensity of purpose and conservatism of view, together with the license of the occasions. on which his comedy was presented, gives rise to the difficulties of interpretation. It is readily seen that his view of Socrates is but partial, though in selecting him as a type of those who were undermining old ideas and practices his judgment was correct. The question as to how far his view of the new educational ideas and their influences is in a similar way partial, is much more difficult to answer. The following principles of interpretation are suggested: His analysis of the old education, narrow and intense, but productive of great results, may be accepted. His view of the new education may be taken as essentially that of the conservative element in society, backed by the prejudices of

the thoughtless multitude. His presentation of the character of the Sophists and of Socrates is a biased one a presentation based on a clear comprehension of the negative results of their teachings, but at the same time showing no comprehension of the fact that positive advance could come only through a preceding critical movement. His misrepresentations of the Sophists are no more erroneous than those of Plato are now seen to be, though from a wholly different point of view. As to the superficial results of the new education, his presentation may be taken as indicative of existing conditions, though even here there are evidently exaggerations. As a contrast between the long-tried results of the old education and the superficial tendencies of the new, his views may be accepted as essentially correct. His indictment can be accepted even concerning the disintegrating political effects and the demoralizing and irreligious social effects of the new education on the large portion of the populace that accepted the teachings. But in this connection it must be borne in mind that there is no correct presentation of the essential intellectual characteristics of the new education, or of the permanent ethical and religious advances that were to result therefrom; and that, on the contrary, Aristophanes might be taken simply as a representative of the enemies of enlightenment and progress, though he was correct in assuming that the progress was to be gained only by the destruction of the old religion and of national existence.

Two other selections relating to this educational transition are from the orations of Isocrates, himself a type of the Sophists of the second generation when their educational work was definitely formulated into schools. Isocrates was born 436 B.C., and was instructed by Prodicus,

Protagoras, Gorgias, and the other Sophists. In 392 B.C. he established a school in Athens, though he had taught elsewhere for twelve years. This school was largely attended by Athenians and other Grecians, and brought him wealth and great reputation. His influence was exerted, not through participation in actual public activities, but by means of orations prepared for circulation throughout Greece rather than for delivery on special occasions.

The first of the selections here given is the oration Against the Sophists, written about 390 B.C., when Isocrates was just beginning his work at Athens. In this oration he declares the principles underlying his work by protesting against the practices adopted by other members of the teaching profession. Isocrates was a Sophist, and so calls himself; but from his point of view there were many unworthy members of the craft. The first class of teachers criticised are those who profess to impart absolute knowledge which will enable others to direct their conduct. under all circumstances. These teachers are criticised, not only for accepting fees, but for their fundamental claim. In this latter criticism he has in view the followers of Socrates and Plato, if not the great masters themselves. The second class of teachers criticised are the professors of political discourse, and that, too, in spite of the fact that it is to this class that Isocrates himself belongs. Here, however, he criticises the claim commonly put forth of power to make any one a good forensic speaker irrespective of his natural ability. The third class criticised are those who profess to write on the art of rhetoric, yet confine the whole art to the realm of forensic or political discourse.

The second selection was written 354 B.C., at the close

of his career. Isocrates was then eighty-two years old and was the leading representative of his profession. In this oration, On the Exchange of Estates, he gives not only a defence of himself and of his own career, but of his profession in general. In the latter half of the selection is stated the general theory of the Sophists, or of rhetorical education.

The fourth source relating to this period is the selection from the Republic, wherein Plato points out the evil of illdirected education, and shows the distinction between the true philosopher and the false. This discussion gives Plato's conception of the group of teachers represented by Isocrates, just as the paragraph in Against the Sophists gave the Sophists' views of the philosophic or dialectic teachers. As the philosophers were visionaries and theorists to Isocrates, so the Sophists were simply corrupted, ignoble, incompletely formed philosophers to Plato. The value of the Republic as a source is discussed later (p. 130).

The Changes in the Education of the period are manifold and not confined to any one aspect, though they are more pronounced in what would now be called secondary and higher education. Using the testimony of the Clouds with caution and supplementing it with corroborative evidence, circumstantial or direct, from a great variety of sources, the following general changes can be indicated. The very source of education, the home itself, was affected by these changes. There was a decline in the rigid discipline of the boy and of the immediate personal supervision of the boy by his father. His early training was now left more largely to the direction of nurses and pedagogues in whose selection less care was exercised. There was no need for the old-time severity. There was greater ease