those who have passed through the elementary training, and to indicate a yet more select class that can profit by the highest discipline of all, the philosophical. For the elect, the period from thirty to thirty-five is to be devoted wholly to philosophical pursuits and dialectic training. Only the ablest minds and the most stable characters can profit by this highest of intellectual efforts. From thirtyfive to fifty these philosophers are to be the guardians of society, and are to devote themselves to the practical duties of public life. After the fiftieth year the practical life, now much less onerous in its character, is again merged in philosophical pursuits; that is, the philosopher who has meanwhile tested principle by experience is prepared to deepen his insight into fundamental truth, not only for his own sake, but for the benefit of society as well.

While Plato's ideal state was never realized, the idea education, separated from practical civic life, was approximated in the formation of the philosophical schools and the mystical religious societies and, in a later religious form, in the Christian church. Yet there remains the educational truth, essential for all times, that education is a life process, and that it should not be divorced at any time from actual life. In this latter respect the influence of Plato was quite at variance with his doctrine.

The Laws form a marked contrast with the Republic both in the theory of the state there advanced and in the scheme of education there advocated. So sharp is this contrast in some points that the authenticity of the Laws has been questioned. This scepticism is based upon inferiority of style as well as of ideas, but it finds no general support. This work is probably the last of Plato's compositions, being written during the last seven years of his

life, when he was over seventy years of age. In many minor characteristics the Laws are in contrast with the other Platonic dialogues, these formal differences indicating a real change in the author's convictions. This dialogue is one of the few in which Socrates does not appear, and is the only one the scene of which is not located at Athens. This accords with the fact that the speculative element is almost wholly wanting, and that throughout it is dogmatic in a way wholly at variance with that of Socrates. The attitude of Socrates in the dialogues is that of an inquirer for knowledge, not that of a possessor: the Athenian in the Laws, who represents Plato's views, speaks with the utmost assurance on all topics, with the assumption that truth needs no longer to be sought for, but has been discovered. There is, indeed, a manifest intolerance, especially in religious matters, which is in such marked contrast with the usual Platonic attitude that it has formed an important feature in the argument against the Platonic authorship. In a similar way there is a marked contrast in the manner of treatment. The style is no longer conversational, but is more in the form of continuous discourse. In the latter half of the work the dialogue practically disappears. The selections from the Republic illustrate the dialectic method popularized, if not introduced, by Socrates; the Laws in its continuous, dogmatic, formal discourse exemplifies the method of the rhetorical schools.

The relation of the Laws to the Republic is indicated in paragraph 739 of the former. "The first and highest. form of the state, and of the government and of the law is that in which there prevails most widely the ancient saying, that 'Friends have all things in common.' . . . Such a state, whether inhabited by Gods or by sons of

Gods, will make them blessed who dwell therein and therefore to this we are to look for the pattern of the state, and to cling to this, and, so far as possible, to seek for one which is like this. The state which we now have in hand when created will be nearest to immortality and unity in the next degree." The Republic is an ideal impossible of attainment: the Laws forms the nearest possible approximation to the ideal. The events at Athens, and the failure of the attempt at Syracuse to realize the government by philosophers, led Plato to the radical modification of the scheme outlined in the Republic. Elsewhere

Plato indicates the relation of the two types of government and of education. The most perfect state is that in which there are no rigid laws, but which is under the direction of the intelligent despot that possesses all wisdom, or of a class of such philosophers. In case such an ideal is unrealizable, the next best government is one in which a rigid scheme of laws framed by philosophers is enforced by officials who have no power to modify the laws. Such a government Plato formulates in the Laws. The first four books are merely introductory; the fifth gives the outline of the constitution; the last six are devoted to the laws in detail. The class of guardians now gives place to an hereditary prince, a commissioner of education, an elective senate, and a body of officials chosen by lot.

As it calls for no guardian class, for which the whole scheme of education must be shaped, the Laws offers a scheme of education radically different from that presented in the Republic. Not only are poets banished, as in the Republic, but there is now no place for philosophers, who, if not banished, are at least ignored. Hence, the phase of education in the earlier work devoted to phi

losophy is entirely eliminated. Education culminates in science and mathematics, but after the manner of the Pythagoreans, it is a mathematics closely allied to religion. Arithmetic and geometry, developing the idea of harmony, culminate in astronomy, which is closely allied with astrology. This astrological religion forms the basis of society. Plato praises the religious and ethical conditions in primitive society, quite after the manner of Aristophanes; but finding it impossible to advise a return to the gross polytheism of the early Greeks, he substitutes for it a mixture of Pythagorean philosophy and Oriental or Egyptian astrology. This education, no longer having any connection with his doctrine of ideas, is the same for all. The outline of education, with the omission of the higher stage, is quite similar to that of the Republic, though animated throughout by a different spirit. The literary element now becomes small. It is most strictly guarded by the state, on the assumption that social decay in Athenian society has been due to a corruption in music and in literature. In detail the entire scheme more nearly approximates the accepted Greek education. It is, however, a combination of selected Athenian and Spartan elements rather than a close imitation of either. The common meals, the education of both sexes, the public character of the education, its uniformity, the close superintendence of private life, are Spartan; the literary elements, the philosophy of the curriculum, the Bacchic choruses, its festive character, are Athenian. The strong emphasis on mathematics represents the Pythagorean influence that became so strong in Plato's later life. While in immediate importance and in permanent value the education of the Laws cannot compare with that of the Republic, its historic elements are of somewhat greater value.

The scene is laid in the house of CEPHALUS at the Piræus; and the whole discourse is narrated the day after it actually took place, to TIMEUS, HERMocrates, CritIAS, and a nameless person.

BOOK II

Justice or the end of

the state dependent upon

education.

Divisions of education.

Then he who is to be a really good and noble guardian of the State will require to unite in himself philosophy and spirit and swiftness and strength?

Undoubtedly.

Then we have found the desired natures; and now that we have found them, how are they to be reared and educated? Is this an enquiry which may be fairly expected to throw light on the greater enquiry which is our final endHow do justice and injustice grow up in States? for we do not want to be tedious and irrelevant, or to leave out anything which is really to the point.

Adeimantus thought that the enquiry would be of great

use to us.

Then, I said, my dear friend, the task must not be given up, even if somewhat long.

Certainly not.

Come then, and let us pass a leisure hour in story telling, and our story shall be the education of our heroes.

By all means.

And what shall be their education? Can we find a better than the old-fashioned sort? —and this has two divisions, gymnastic for the body, and music for the soul.

True.