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it may be designed for the reader of the history, rather than for the audience of occasion, it reflects accurately the spirit of such occasions and the character of the times. While Pericles, both in his training and in his life, was more clearly than Thucydides a product of the newer education, it would not be inconsistent that on such an occasion he should express the dominant characteristics of the old. Irrespective of its authorship, this oration can be taken as an exposition of the ideals and results of the old education.

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Spartan Education was almost identical with Spartan life in general. Sparta was practically a military camp organized for the training of warriors. The Spartans were a small group of conquerors among a large subject population. Their national existence depended upon the military excellence of their citizens, and their whole life was organized to this end. The home was practically abolished, and for it was substituted the camp or school. While there was no definite school, all of childhood was a schooling, definitely systematized for educational purposes; and the chief occupation of the adults, aside from their military life, was the education of the younger generation. This education was almost wholly physical and moral. It was narrow but intense, producing the highest and most permanent results that have ever been attained along these restricted lines. Above all, it meant the production of individuals wholly subject to the state. Next to this idea of the complete subordination of the welfare of the individual to that of the community, came the Spartan ideal of physical bravery, power, and endurance. Patriotism and sacrifice of the individual to the common welfare were inculcated throughout life and in every incident and inter

est in life. The physical results were obtained through the definite training that was a substitute for all school work. This rigid discipline began from the day of birth, but for the first seven years the boy remained in the charge of the mother. Thereafter he was in the charge of selected state officials that were responsible for his physical and moral education. The boys were trained in companies, lived in public barracks, and ate at common tables. These companies were under immediate command of boys of an older age, though the general supervision of adults was never absent. The training consisted of a definite system of exercises and games, of a more military character after the age of twelve, and wholly so from the eighteenth or twentieth year, during which time the youth lived in barracks or was engaged in actual military service. In time of peace this service was in the nature of police or garrison duties. Only at the thirtieth year were the youths admitted into full citizenship. The moral training aimed to produce self-control in action and speech, endurance, reverence, a spirit of patriotic self-sacrifice, dignity of action, and subjection of all emotional expression. Such results were obtained by a constant association with others of the same age under the close supervision of the elders at their meals, at their games, in public dances of military character, in religious services of choral character, in their sports, especially hunting, and in their barrack life. After the age of twelve, boys were trained to provide for their own wants through the obligation resting upon them of contributing to the common mess and to the few comforts allowed in their sleeping quarters. In this elaborate state education there was little provision for the intellectual element save as it was incidental in the

physical and moral training indicated above. There was practically no literary instruction. In the later centuries, however, it was customary, or at least not unusual, for reading and writing to be taught, though aside from the state education. Otherwise the intellectual training was received in committing to memory and mastering the Laws of Lycurgus, these being handed down from one generation to another through several centuries in the verbal form,— the national hymns and choruses, and later the poems of the few native writers held in repute.

As with all the Greeks the content of Spartan education was included in music, gymnastic, and dancing. But music was a much narrower term than it came to be elsewhere, and never contained more than the rudiments of a literary education.

The details of this system of education are given in full in the selection from Plutarch. This education, introduced in the ninth century B.C. was largely responsible for the military power of Sparta. It lost much of its rigidity after the Peloponnesian War, and ceased to have any force by the opening of the second century B.C.

Athenian Education of the old period was similar to the Spartan education in its simplicity of aim and narrowness of content, but not in its organization or in its stationary character. While the details of Spartan education were quite full, the sources on early Athenian education leave much to be desired. The selections from the speech of Protagoras give a general outline, but few details. Education was public only in so far as it was subject to close state supervision of the general results to be expected of home training or individual private institutions. It could be given in the home, but was more commonly

obtained in private schools. In contradistinction to the general authority and responsibility of adults at Sparta, a law of Solon forbade any adult save teachers and pedagogues entering the school. There was not the training in large groups as at Sparta, though the ability to act in common and the community sentiment were developed to some extent through the religious chorus, dance, and procession. Athenian education was neither so severe nor so prolonged as that at Sparta, and, after the fifteenth or sixteenth year, it permitted much greater freedom.

As elsewhere in Greece, formal education included music and gymnastic, perhaps with dancing as a third branch, though it was but a combination of the other two. Gymnastic was less important and less military in character than at Sparta. The purpose of gymnastic was the development of a sound and beautiful physique, not simply the making of a warrior. Beauty and grace, quite as well as power of endurance, entered into the aims. The exercises were less rigid and more varied, consisting in running, discus throwing, javelin casting, and wrestling, to which should be added dancing as a culmination and combination of the other phases of their training. these exercises there were to be obtained health and strength, beauty and grace, and, in addition, the selfpossession and dignity of bearing that were but the outward manifestations of the moral results of this physical training. Music included the remainder of their formal education. But even in this early period music was a much broader term than at Sparta. It always included the literary element, at least reading, writing, and the mastery of the Homeric writings. Later, other national literature was introduced, so that this literary education

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would mean a familiarity with national myths, religious customs, and laws. While music was a term applicable to all the interests of the nine muses, it meant music in the restricted sense as well. Along with reading went instruction in playing the lyre and in singing, for the three were combined to a considerable extent. It is not until the later period that the literary element becomes the prominent factor, and that the use of musical instruments other than the simple one for accompanying the voice was introduced. The method of these schools was little more than simple training through imitation. Of elaborate literary instruction there was none. The work in literature consisted in memorizing the Homeric poems and in repeating them with appropriate musical accompaniments. At fifteen and sixteen the boy devoted the greater part of his time to gymnastic, and passed from the palæstra into the gymnasium for advanced physical training, association with adults in the agora being substituted for the music school. At eighteen the ephebic stage was reached, when the oath given in the selections (p. 33) was administered, and the youth entered on the last stage of apprenticeship for citizenship. This period included a two years' military service in guard and police duty, mostly in the rural regions. At twenty he was admitted to full citizenship.

While this education was more literary in character than the Spartan, its dominant motive was moral and social. Its whole purpose was preparation for active Athenian citizenship, but a citizenship which demanded political as well as military services. The influence of these political obligations upon the character of the youth and the citizen is emphasized in the oration of Pericles. The dominant

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