opposed to the teleological conception. If we compare all the ideas of the universe prevalent among different nations at different times, we can divide them all into two sharply contrasted groups-a causal or mechanical, and a teleological or vitalistic. The latter has prevailed generally in Biology until now, and accordingly the animal and vegetable kingdoms have been considered as the products of a creative power, acting for a definite purpose. In the contemplation of every organism the unavoidable conviction seemed to press itself upon us, that such a wonderful machine, so complicated an apparatus for motion as exists in the organism, could only be produced by a power analogous to, but infinitely more perfect than, the power of man in the construction of his machines.

However sublime the former idea of a Creator, and his creative power, may have been; however much it may be divested of all human analogy, yet in the end this analogy still remains unavoidable and necessary in the teleological conception of nature. In reality the Creator must himself be conceived of as an organism, that is, as a being who, analogous to man, even though in an infinitely more perfect form, reflects on his constructive power, lays down a plan of his mechanisms, and then, by the application of suitable materials, makes them answer their purpose. Such conceptions necessarily suffer from the fundamental error of anthropomorphism, or man-likening. In such a view, however exalted the Creator may be imagined, we assign to him the human attributes of designing a plan, and therefrom suitably constructing the organism. This is, in fact, quite clearly expressed in that view which is most sharply opposed to Darwin's theory, and which has found among

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naturalists its most distinguished representative in Agassiz. His celebrated work, "An Essay on Classification," which is entirely opposed to Darwin's, and appeared almost at the same time, has elaborated quite consistently, and to the utmost extent, these anthropomorphic conceptions of the Creator.

I maintain with regard to the much-talked-of "purpose in nature," that it really has no existence but for those persons who observe phenomena in animals and plants in the most superficial manner. Without going more deeply into the matter, we can see at once that the rudimentary organs are a formidable obstacle to this theory. And, indeed, every one who makes a really close study of the organization and mode of life of the various animals and plants, and becomes familiar with the reciprocity or inter-action of the phenomena of life, and the so-called "economy of nature," must necessarily come to the conclusion that this purposiveness" no more exists than the much-talked-of "beneficence" of the Creator. These optimistic views have, unfortunately, as little real foundation as the favourite phrase, the "moral order of the universe," which is illustrated in an ironical way by the history of all nations. The dominion of the "moral" popes, and their pious inquisition, in the mediæval times, is not less significant of this than the prevailing militarism, with its "moral" apparatus of needle-guns and other refined instruments of murder, or the pauperism which is the inseparable accompaniment of our refined civilization.

If we closely examine the common life and the mutual relations between plants and animals (man included), we shall find everywhere, and at all times, the very opposite of

that kindly and peaceful social life which the goodness of the Creator ought to have prepared for his creatures-we shall rather find everywhere a pitiless, most embittered Struggle of All against All. Nowhere in nature, no matter where we turn our eyes, does that idyllic peace exist, of which poets sing; we find everywhere a struggle and a striving to annihilate neighbours and competitors. Passion and selfishness-conscious or unconscious-is everywhere the motive force of life. The well-known words of Schiller

"The world is perfect, save where man
Comes in with his strife,'

are beautiful, but, unfortunately, not true. Man in this respect certainly forms no exception to the rest of the animal world. The remarks which we shall have to make on the theory of "Struggle for Existence" will sufficiently justify this assertion. It is, in fact, Darwin who has placed this important point, in its high and general significance, very clearly before our eyes, and the chapter in his theory which he himself calls "Struggle for Existence" is one of the most important parts of it.

Whilst, then, we emphatically oppose the vital or teleological view of animate nature which presents animal and vegetable forms as the productions of a kind Creator, acting for a definite purpose, or of a creative, natural force acting for a definite purpose, we must, on the other hand, decidedly adopt that view of the universe which is called the mechanical or causal. It may also be called the monistic, or single-principle theory, as opposed to the twofold principle, or dualistic theory, which is necessarily implied in

"Die Welt ist vollkommen überall

Wo der Mensch nicht hinkommt mit seiner Qual."

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the teleological conception of the universe. The mechanical view of nature has for many years been so firmly established in certain domains of natural science, that it is here unnecessary to say much about it. It no longer occurs to physicists, chemists, mineralogists, or astronomers, to seek to find in the phenomena which continually appear before them in their scientific domain the action of a Creator acting for a definite purpose. They universally, and without hesitation, look upon the phenomena which appear in their different departments of study as the necessary and invariable effects of physical and chemical forces which are inherent in matter. Thus far their view is purely materialistic, in a certain sense of that " word of many meanings."

When a physicist traces the phenomena of motion in electricity or magnetism, the fall of a heavy body, or the undulations in the waves of light, he never, in the whole course of his research, thinks of looking for the interference of a supernatural creative power. In this respect, Biology, as the science of so-called "animated" natural bodies, was formerly placed in sharp opposition to the above-mentioned inorganic natural sciences (Anorganology). It is true modern Physiology, the science of the phenomena of motion in animals and plants, has completely adopted the mechanical view; but Morphology, the science of the forms of animals and plants, has not been affected at all by it. Morphologists, in spite of the position of physiology, have continued, as before, in opposition to the mechanical view of functions, to look upon the forms of animals and plants as something which cannot be at all explained mechanically, but which must owe its origin necessarily to a higher, supernatural creative power, acting for a definite purpose.

In this general view it is quite indifferent whether the creative power be worshipped as a personal god, or whether it be termed the power of life (vis vitalis), or final cause (causa finalis). In every case, to express it in one word, its supporters have recourse to a miracle for an explanation. They throw themselves into the arms of a poetic faith, which as such can have no value in the domain of scientific knowledge.

All that was done before Darwin, to establish a natural mechanical conception of the origin of animals and plants, has been in vain, and until his time no theory gained a general recognition. Darwin's theory first succeeded in doing this, and thus has rendered an immense service. For the idea of the unity of organic and inorganic nature is now firmly established; and that branch of natural science which had longest and most obstinately opposed mechanical conception and explanation, viz. the science of the structure of animate forms, their significance and origin, is launched on to precisely the same road towards perfection as that along which all the rest of the natural sciences are travelling. The unity of all natural phenomena is by Darwin's theory finally established.

This unity of all nature, the animating of all matter, the inseparability of mental power and corporeal substance, Goethe has asserted in the words, "Matter can never exist and be active without mind, nor can mind without matter." These first principles of the mechanical conception of the universe have been taught by the great monistic philosophers of all ages. Even Democritus of Abdera, the immortal founder of the Atomic theory, clearly expressed them about 500 years before Christ; but grand Spinoza, and the great