like the Sassaks. One hundred and fifty soldiers are always under arms and compose the prince's body-guard. The uniform of this bodyguard consists, according to Zollinger and Dr. Jacobs, who visited Lombock in 1882, of a white head covering and a jacket of red baize and according to Dr. Jacobs they also wear a "sarong" caught up between the legs.

There is no question of drill or practise in times of of peace. Heer van Eck says that a merchant at Ampenan told him, however, that his coolies were constantly being called away for four or five days at a time to practise target shooting. On these occasions they were obliged to provide themselves with food and lodgings, which caused much

privation and sickness amongst them and the drilling or practising cannot really have been of any advantage to them. Opposed to well drilled troops in the open field the Balinese need not be considered as very serious opponents, but their powers of resistance under cover, behind walls and earthworks is remarkable and by no means to be despised. We had an experience of this in the earlier expeditions against their ancestors.

The Rajah cannot in any degree depend upon the Bugis, whose recruits would probably only number. about 50 and whose chief, Pa Molda, alias Doci, has always under some pretext or another managed to secure their immunity from serving in the army. And finally the prince did not venture to summon those Sassaks, who were nominally faithful and bound to him by ties of blood and who dwelt among the Balinese, for fear they might eventually join the rebels. The number of firearms they are said to possess differs considerably. Willemstijn reckons about 25.000, amongst which a great number of breach-loaders. By this time however, many must be in the hands of the rebels and many must be defective. Of course we are ignorant as to the competence of their gunsmiths to repair them; but our experiences at Atcheen would go to prove that we are justified in thinking that their skill is somewhat exaggerated, especially regarding modern firearms.

Balinese man.

Less divergent and more reassuring are the opinions expressed regarding their acquaintance with cannon. At most they have not more than 70 or 80 and these are of ancient construction and various calibres and the greater number are unprovided with gun-carriages. At the beginning of the uprising the greater part of them were conveyed to Praja by the Sassaks but would have been more dangerous to themselves than to the enemy!

No one knows how to charge them. Zollinger was informed that it was intended to force the Bugis to use them in case of need. This would not have been dangerous for us as we afterwards discovered.

A very large supply of gunpowder, almost enough for two years, is stored at Tjakra and powder and shot are being continually imported into Lombock. The significance of this is lessened however by the circumstance that, according to Zollinger, a great amount is consumed on the occasion of various festivities.* If, to what we have already stated, we add that there is never any question of horses during the war, then we shall have completed what we have to say regarding the military system at Lombock.

Zollinger says that the entire Balinese population resides at Mataram and the outskirts, or at Ampenan, Karang-Assim (afterwards called Tjakra Nagara), etc. This, he adds, is a wise measure, for if they were too widely scattered over the country they would have far more difficulty in defending themselves in case of attack. The opinion expressed by Zollinger was correct-but we must bear in mind that it was formulated before the great rebellion of 1855, and although the outskirts have in course of time extended considerably and the border line of Balinese supremacy may now be said to reach from Sanah Tepong to the East of Narmada to near Raja on the South-east, still it will be a matter of surprise to many how such a comparatively small number of HinduBalinese, inhabitants of the smaller part of the island, should have attained authority over such a far greater number as the Mohammedan population dispersed all over the island and not only obtained it, but kept it.

Before proceeding to show how the Lombock rulers obtained such a firm footing in the island, we shall endeavour to sketch the historical and religious institutions of the rulers.

It was probably in the first centuries of the Christian era that the Indians or Hindus, in the pursuit of their extensive trade with Southern Asia and China, established themselves in Java, Sumatra and other islands inhabited by the Malay race and planted colonies there.

With their Hindu religion these Indians also brought their knowledge of agriculture (rice culture), cattle-breeding and to Java in particular their architecture, in which island they laid the foundation of that high civilization of which we still see the remains in such wonderful achievements as the master-piece of Buru-Budur. There they established amongst many kingdoms the once so powerful and famous Madjapahit, which reached the zenith of its glory towards the end of the 14th century under Angka Widjaja and extended its influence far and wide to other countries. Thus it came to pass that, even amongst the early,

*Heer King related to Zollinger amongst other things, that at the celebration of some festivity-the "Karia Dewa Yagna"-at which he was going to assist, the princes would consume more than 30 pikols of powder for salutes during the procession (1 pikol is about 125 Amsterdam lbs.)

the original inhabitants of Bali they disseminated the seeds of their morality, their religion and their civilization. *

All this was not accomplished without a struggle, although the yoke of the indulgent and broad-minded Hindus was sure not to weigh too heavily upon the people. One of the most serious attempts at rebellion was during the latter part of the 15th century shortly before the fall of Madjapahit.

The two chief generals of this kingdom were ordered to cross over to Bali and subjugate the island by force of arms. Arja Damar and Patih Gadja accordingly went with a considerable army; the former was especially successful in a series of battles and Bali was soon compelled to submit again to Hindu rule; the name of Arja Damar occupies a foremost place in Javanese literature and in Balinese legends as the hero of the day and many of their "wajangs" are made to represent the feats performed by him.

This expedition was the last display of power of the once so mighty kingdom of Madjapahit.

What then can have been the events that led up to the downfall of this realm?

Probably at a much earlier period, but at all events certainly during the reign of Angka Widjaja, Arabian missionaries had come over to Java to propagate Islamism. Conspicuous amongst these was Raden Rahmat,

whose adherents became so numerous and whose influence was so widespread, that he actually married one of the daughters of Angka Widjaja, from whom he received leave to establish himself at Surabaya and assume the title of Susuhunan, whilst his sons were raised to the position of Adipati or stadholders.

So firm a footing had Islamism now gained in Java, that it spread very rapidly and towards the middle of the 15th century half the island. may be said to have been peopled with followers of the crescent.

In proportion as the teaching of Mohammed was promulgated, so was the power of Madjapahit weakened, internal divisions hastening the disruption.

If hitherto Rahmat and his adherents had pursued peaceful methods

* Great diversity of opinion prevails regarding the origin of the Balinese and their conversion to the Hindu religion: in view of a similarity in morals, van Eck thinks they originate from Celebes; Van Hoëvell alleges that the Hindus come direct from India as well as from Java. In support of the idea that Hindus came direct to Bali from India, Friederich-of whom later-speaks of many customs practised in Bali and unknown in Java such as the burning of widows, the building of houses of brick, etc.

According to tradition, the first Hindus came to Bali from India. (see Jonkes "Volkskunde von Bali"). On their arrival, says the sage, they found two princes at Bali: not men, but demons. One of them had the head of a cockatoo!-and this is a remarkable statement, for Wallace says that this bird is not met with further Westwards than Lombock, where the Australian fauna commences, but oddly enough specimens are found at the present day on the island of Noesa or Penida, belonging to Bali.

This same tradition relates how several years later Ida Sapien Dalem Dewa Agong chose different wives from different parts of the island. At Kalong-Kalong he bought a slave, who bore him a son with woolly hair, but who could not be king on account of his mother having been a slave.

Does this narrative point to relationship with an inferior race perhaps from Australia?

in carrying out their purpose, it was not so with his successors; who did not hesitate to place their swords in the scales.

Raden Patah, a Mohammedan fanatic, struck the final blow to the tottering monarchy about 1478 of our era, which finally succumbed after a good deal of hard fighting with varying success.

The last king, Bra Widjaja, after struggling in vain to withstand the forces of the triumphant followers of the crescent, was compelled to seek refuge in the island of Bali with a few of his faithful subjects; he established himself at Gelgel, a dessa in Kalongkong, not far from the present capital of the Dewa Agong. From here he the first Dewa Agong-exercised his authority throughout the island, which he partitioned into various divisions, where the chiefs of his army-poenggawas— were sent as his vassals. By degrees these chiefs of districts made themselves independent of their ruler and founded the small principalities into which Bali is now divided. *

Ratzel has drawn particular attention in his "Völkerkünde" to the spread of Papuans over the Indian Archipelago where they were transported as slaves by the sea-faring Malaysespecially to the coast towns. But even further inland elements of the Papuan race are discernible; and the Balinese were not a sea-faring people.

Tonkes deduces from these circumstances that, both at Bali and Lombock, we have to deal with an ante-Papuan people, mixed up first with the Malay race and subsequently with the Hindus and Hindu-Javanese.

To return for a moment to Balinese traditions-it appears that the sons of Ida Sapien Dalem were the direct ancestors of the present princes-of whom the Dewa Agong (viz. the great dewa) of Kalongkong is the most important branch, he being descended from a union contracted between Ida Sapien Dalem and his own sister, both being of equally high birth. We shall have to refer again later on to this Dewa Agong of Kalongkong, who strangely enough is still entitled by our Government as Susuhunan.

It is a well-known fact that in certain dessas of Bali, like Sembiran and Sangsit, there still linger many traces of the ante-Balinese, (Bali-aga) who in their worship had preserved the customs of the ancient Polynesian heathens-for instance these people neither bury their dead nor cremate them, but lay them in or under a tree ontside the dessa, as is still done at Nias. *It may be interesting to hear more of the popular traditions regarding the origin of the Hindus in Bali.

What follows is taken from a manuscript of 1842 and is written by Heer van Rees to the then Colonial Minister, I. C. Baud:

"The arrival of the Musulmans with their Koran at Java caused great displeasure to the Brahmin gods who were reverenced there. Desirous of avoiding even the remotest contact with any strange gods, they determined to leave Java; accordingly they departed and going eastwards they reached Bali, where they decided to establish their earthly throne. Their resolution was however met with opposition; Bali already possessed her own gods, wicked beings, called Raksasas. They had the courage to defend themselves energetically against the Brahmin deities, but they were finally defeated. However one of the Raksasas succeeded in escaping from annihilation and continued to sojourn in the island and this was the Balinese god, known as "Mraya Dawana"

Should we be justified in concluding that this deity is representative of the ante-Balinese, whom one meets in certain portions of the island and to whom we have already referred? According to the "holy chronicle" from which this narrative is taken, the victorious Brahmin gods now decided to build for themselves worthy earthly habitations. In those days Bali was a very flat country and as it would be undignified to place themselves on the same level as mere mortals, it was settled that they should transfer the four hills from the East corner of Java to Bali.

The highest one was placed in the East, the place of honour and was given the name of Gunong-Agong, which means highest or greatest mountain. Henceforward this was to constitute as it were the Olympus of Bali; the other three were located in the West, North and South and were assigned to the different gods according to their respective ranks.

By command of the gods two human beings were born from the fruit of the cocoa-palm growing on the Gunong-Agong: one was a man and the other a woman; these were taught

Thus it came about that Hinduism found shelter on the very border of its earlier domains; here have been preserved up to the present day their sacred writings, their historical traditions, their religious institutions these have left an indelible mark both for good and evil on the aborigines, but in any case they have resulted in a higher civilization and great developzent in agriculture!

How now did the Hindu-Balinese succeed in extending their rule to Lombock?

Very little or nothing is known of the early history of the Sassaks; a decided uncertainty prevails regarding the period when they accepted the doctrine of Islamism. It must presumably have been shortly after the fall of the Hindu dynasty in Java, when the Arabian merchants were no longer admitted to the island of Bali in pursuit of their business and consequently turned to Lombock to sell their wares and at the same time disseminate their religious views amongst the inhabitants. The date of the conversion of the Sassaks to Islamism may roughly be put down as being the latter part of the 13th and the earlier part of the 16th centuries. This conversion differs from the conversion to Hinduism, both in Bali and Lombock, in so far as it only touched the outer life and consisted chiefly in subscribing to the dogma: "There is no god but Allah and Mohammed is his prophet" and in the abstention from pork and submission to circumcision. *

by the gods how to instruct the people in their religious worship. These two first teachers received the name of Manko (head-priest) and they (there are still female priests in Bali) also taught the people who had by this time come from Java.

But what had occurred meanwhile in Java?

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The numerous calamities and disasters which overtook the Hindus now assembled in East Java, made them feel that they were entirely forsaken by the gods under whose protection they were placed, but who had now left Java. The Natung Willa Tikta (prince), now pying the throne of Madjapahit, on being informed by the Brahmins that the temples were empty and deserted, charged his general, Pateh Gadjamada to seek out the new abode of the absent gods. Escorted by a powerful following, the general landed at Bali, where he was soon on the traces of the missing deities. As soon as these tidings reached the prince he hastened to gather a large army and crossed over to Bali, which became the scene of many bloody conflicts; the natives were led by the invincible Raksasa "Mraya Dawana," their own god, who had escaped the fury of the Hindu gods. Finally however Willa Tikta (Bra Widgaja) conquered them and became master of the island; he selected one of the hills in the West, only half the height of the Gunong-Agong, as the seat of his Government and he built there the town of Kalonkong. The Brahmins established themselves on a projecting angle of the highest hill between the gods and the princes-this again confirms the idea that the priests constituted a higher caste-and the heads of the army scattered themselves in a southern or south-western direction, all receiving smaller or larger grants of territory in proportion to the services rendered in subjugating the island.

*Regarding the introduction of Islamism in Java and Lombock, Van Eck contributes in the "Tijdschr. v. Ind. Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, 1875," the following tradition, which is generally accepted in Bali and which we subjoin as forming part of the people's creed there. Those readers who may take exception at the narrative must bear in mind that similar accounts are current concerning the origin of tribes in other islands of the Archipelago, in Java for instance. One has only to remember the Kalangs in Central Java, regarding whose origin Professor Veth gives all the necessary details in his famous work.

"One day, a very long time ago, Batara Indra, the much-feared chief of the lower gods or dewas in Bali was right up on top of the hill, assigned to him for his dwelling-place. Suddenly, whilst surveying from these heights the nether world at his feet, he was seized with the violent need to relieve nature. Anxious, however, that none of the sacred water