Let us proceed to see how this rice culture, such a source of wealth to prince and people, is regulated.

An inclined plain, the side of a hill for instance, is divided by banks and trenches into horizontal strips of land, forming so many terraces; the water used to flood these frequently comes down from the mountains through deep ravines and has to be dammed up and subsequently carried through open or covered aqueducts along the line of cultivation. After the land has been ploughed by East Indian buffalo-oxen, the rice is sown in the trenches, which are left under water until the seed

germinates, when it is drawn off; later, they are again flooded, and the alternate flooding and drawing-off is continued until the harvest time. It is evident that for the laying out of these terraces much practice and knowledge are indispensable. The construction of the dams in the rivers necessitates hard work and abundant material; and the planting of the stakes to support the aqueducts, the preparing of all these winding mounds the whole length of the different terraces, are also very arduous labours; the apportioning of the water, which is very scarce, over all the various fields, requires continual care and supervision to prevent either accidental or intentional damage or the draining off of the water. It is perfectly clear that it would be impossible for each single individual to do all this for himself.

Thus it has come about that all those interested, whose fields are irrigated by the same river or branch of a river, have made common cause and formed societies, which are called soebak-unions or societies from the fact that all the lands watered from the same source are called "soebaks." The object of these institutions was to ensure to the small land-owner proportionate advantages to those enjoyed by large proprietors, without however in any way detracting from each man's individual claim. In addition to this material benefit, the social bond became strengthened between dwellers in the same districts, which was in itself a good

thing, for as we have already remarked, the Balinese show a decided disinclination to cultivate friendly intercourse with their neighbours.

As these unions increased in numbers, they grew more and more independent and in virtue of their own regulations, the "kerta sima soebak," they assumed full technical and administrative authority in their own territories.

These "soebaks bear a striking resemblance to our polder districts and the "socbak-unions" to our administration of the polders with this, difference, that with us, it is a question of draining the water off the land and with them it is a question of carrying it to the land.

The study of this remarkable institution and its rules, is most important, but we should exceed the limit of our work if we were to do more than just draw attention to one or two interesting facts; to be brief then: When inhabitants of a dessa wish to establish a "soebak" and have informed themselves that there will be no obstacles placed in their way by the officials in the dessa where the land is situated, then they make an application to the "Sedahan-agong," that is to the head of all tho sawahs and through him the request is placed before the princes, te whom all rivers and waste lands belong.

When it is clear that the new course would cause little or no damage

to those already existing, then permission is given and the society is at once constituted.

The first thing they do is to choose a president,—the "klian-soebak of whom it is expected that he shall study the interests of the society before all else.

As soon as the season is favorable, they begin work, the land is eleared and parcelled out amongst the members. The klian keeps a sort of register consisting of a collection of lontar-leaves, on each one of which is inscribed the name of a share-holder, together with his address and the area of land that has been allotted to him. The president regulates the remaining business of the soebak mostly in conjunction with the other members, as his position is rather that of a senior member than that of a chief.

He opens the meetings and presides over them; he has to see to the carrying out of all the decisions and rules, he fixes the fines and penalties; besides this he is held responsible for the fair division of the water and must take precautionary measures against damages of all kinds, waterstealing, etc. There is no settled salary attached to the office of president, but sometimes certain privileges are granted, such as a double share of water. If the district is too extensive to be properly superintended by one man, it is either subdivided or assistants are chosen to help the "klian" in his duties. All the members of the soebak are bound to assist the klian in turn, and therefore a list of their names is duly kept.

His

In cases of dispute arising which fail to be amicably settled by the klian, appeal is made, to the "sedahan temboekoe;" this functionary is superintendant-general of all the "soebaks" in one same dessa. principal duty is to see that the taxes due to the prince on the sawahs are paid punctually; he has nothing else whatever to do with agriculture, beyond supervising the division of the water, where several "soebaks' are served from the same source.

If this official is unable to settle matters in dispute to the satisfaction of those concerned, then they may refer to the fore-named "sedahanagong," who is the head of the sawah administration and is a person of unlimited influence.

There are monthly gatherings of all the "sedahans temboekoes" under the presidency of the "sedahan agong.'

All agricultural questions are discussed, and all questions, that have remained unsettled by the "klians" or the "sedahans temboekoes" during the course of the month, are now settled by the head "sedahan."

There is of course a final appeal to the prince if the matter be not satisfactorily settled by the head "sedahan"; in that case the oath is administered either to the complainant or the defendant and this generally takes place in the soebak-temple. These desperate measures are always avoided as much as possible and the members of the soebak generally try to arrange their business privately.

Once a month, or more frequently if the interests of the "soebak'

should require it, the klian summons all the members to a meeting, which is generally held at some point from which a view of the entire "soebak" can be obtained, thus facilitating a speedy arrangement of all matters under discussion. In the early days of the foundation of a soebak, the gatherings take place in the open, under the shade of some large tree. Later, when things begin to prosper, they unite to build a soebak-temple, so that the meetings may be pleasanter.

Some high spot is generally chosen and the temple is constructed much on the same plan as those we have already described. In the enclosure which is not roofed-there are besides the little gods' house, one or more balés, containing long benches for the members of the soebak. One of the rules to be observed at these meetings runs as follows: Every one who attends the meeting must be suitably attired," viz., he must wear a "sapoet" round the loins, but the upper part of the body must be uncovered and may not be smeared with "boreh." Any infringement of this rule is punishable by a fine.

66

At the hour fixed for the meeting the klian produces his box of plaited lontar-leaves, containing all the documents concerning the "soebak" and first and foremost is the list of members. Each name is read aloud, and should a member not answer at once to the call, he is fined.

All absentees are fined, for attendance at these meetings is one of the chief rules; unless some valid reason is given for omitting to be present, a penalty is enforced.

The klian then proceeds to communicate the orders regarding taxation which he has received from the "sedahan temboekoe" and to tell them what repairs are to be carried out on the roads, which it is the duty of the "soebak" to keep in good order.

After this, the affairs of the soebak itself are considered, the water works, the expediency of renovations, improvements, etc. The klian lays before the members the statement of the money received in fines and entrance fees; the money spent in wages, materials, offerings is also accounted for.

Woe to the klian who should venture to appropriate even one kèpeng of the society's money. The wrath of the gods would overtake him! At times there are considerable sums of money in hand and then the members are allowed to borrow on payment of from 4 to 5 per cent a month.

Having fulfilled his duty and placed all matters clearly before the members, he declares that the business part of the meeting is concluded and the time for pleasure begins.

The "sajahs" or klian's assistants, who prepared the place of reception in the morning by sweeping, laying down mats, etc., now bring round flowers, and offer the various ingredients for the "boreh," (scented ointment) with which to freshen up the body after the long sitting; subsequently refreshments are partaken of, naturally the sirih (leaf of the betel) occupies the first place, but often there is all kinds of pastry or even a whole luncheon. In some rules the prescribed courses are entered and even the quantity allowed for each person is regulated, and

so that there may be no mistake about the matter, a pair of scales frequently occupies a prominent place in the assembly-room.

The chief obligation enjoined on all members of a "soebak" is, that one and all shall do a share of the work in the joint undertaking. Here we see the fulfilment of the principle of general service; here equality reigns supreme, and every man, be he Brahmin or Sudra, if he becomes a member of a "soebak," is bound by the same rules. Each man's work corresponds to the amount of water he uses, so that all those who have the same quantity are obliged to perform the same amount of work; the consumption of water is regulated by the "klian" by means of partitions called "tamoekoes."

Should any one either by purchase or inheritance become possessed of more shares of the sawah, he is obliged to nominate a substitute to look after these or else to pay a fine to the "soebak." Certain stipulations are made to prevent one single person from owning too great a portion of the land, as this would be detrimental to the community. What are the obligatious of a soebak?

These are divided into two classes: 1° those carried out exclusively for the good of the soebak; 2° those performed for the prince or for the benefit of agriculture in general.

To the former belong :

I The keeping in repair of the dams and aqueducts and all things connected with them, sluices, pipes, paddles, partitions, etc. As soon

as the sawahs no longer require flooding, the water-works are left to their fate; heavy rains and landslips cause no end of destruction. A few weeks before the irrigating season begins, the klian makes himself acquainted with the condition of things and makes his report; he sunmons the members to set to work and carry out the needed repairs, for which hands and time very frequently fail.

2o Supervision over the aqueducts and the water used for flooding. Under penalty of a fine every member is compelled to make good immediately any damage that may come under his notice, and should he be unable to do so, he is bound to apprise the klian of the fact. In soebaks where there is a scarcity of water, watchmen are placed at different points to prevent the water being drained off by subterranean pipes. These men, who are on duty night and day, are replaced every 24 hours; to ensure their guarding the whole length of the aqueduct, a certain object is given to the men to deposit at the furthermost point of their beat-this has to be brought back the following day by the next man on duty; thus the members exercise a sort of control over one another.

3o The maintenance of increased police supervision to support the klian. 4o The keeping in repair of all the roads and pipes, on the principle that all lines of communication laid down for the benefit of the soebak should be kept up by them, even should the general public draw advantage therefrom.

5o The building and keeping up of the places where the assemblies are held, the rice barns and the agricultural temples.