but, except about the centre of the town, consisted properly of only a single street, parallel to the river."

"The ancient geographers, Strabo, Ptolemy, and Pliny, have described the situation of Palibothra in such a manner that it is hardly possible to mistake it.

"Strabo, who cites Artemidorus, says, that the Ganges, on its entering the plains of India, runs in a south direction as far as a town called Ganges, (Ganga-puri) now Allahabad, and from thence, with an easterly course, as far as Palibothra ; thence to the sea, (according to the Chrestomathia from Strabo) in a southerly direction. No other place but that which we have assigned for the site of Baliputra, answers to this description of Artemidorus."

"Pliny, from Megasthenes, who, according to Strabo, had repeatedly visited the court of Chandra-Gupta, says, that Palibothra was 425 Roman miles from the confluence of the Jumna with the Ganges. Here it is necessary to premise, that Megasthenes says, the highways in India were measured, and that at the end of a certain Indian measure (which is not named, but it is said to be equal to ten stadia) there was a cippus, or sort of column, erected. No Indian measure answers to this, but the Brahmeni, or astronomical coss of four to a yojana. This is the Hindu statute coss. It is used to this day by astronomers, and by the inhabitants of the Panjab; hence it is very often called the Panjabi-coss: thus the distance from Lahor to Multan is reckoned, to this day, to be 145 Panjabi, or 90 common coss."

"In order to ascertain the number of Brahmeni coss, reckoned formerly between Allahabad and Palibothra, multiply the 425 Roman miles by eight, (for Pliny reckoned so many stadia to a mile) and divide the whole by ten, (the number of stadia to a coss according to Megas

thenes) and we shall have 340 Brahmeni-coss, or 417-18 British miles; and this will bring us to within two miles of the confluence of the old Coosy with the Ganges."*

Mr. Wilford, in support of his opinion, that Palibothra stood "near the confluence of the old Coosy with the Ganges," on a site near the spot where Rajamahal now stands, gives the distance, mentioned by Strabo, from Palibothra to the sea; and the distances, given by Ptolemy, from Palibothra to several towns situated on the banks of the Ganges, above and below it. It is not necessary to follow him through this part of his observations: they contain, however, many things deserving the attention of the curious.

Robertson supposes Palibothra, or Patali-putra, to have stood at or near to the present Allahabad; but, at the time he wrote, he did not possess the great body of information concerning India that has been since obtained.+

The question then, where Palibothra stood, seems now to be brought to this issue, either to adopt the opinions of Jones and Rennell, that it was at Patna, or the opinion of Wilford, that it was at Rajamahal; but it is proved beyond all doubt, that, besides Palibothra, there were anciently other immense cities in those parts of India.

* On the Chronology of the Hindūs, As. Res. vol. v. p. 269, et seq. See Disq. on Ancient India, Note xiv. p. 307. (8vo. edit.)

t

NOTE B.

(Referred to, vol. i. pp. 270, 272, and p. 320, of this volume.)

On the Origin of Casts in India; together with an Account of the different Classes of Brahmins, and their respective Pursuits.

THE division into four distinct casts or tribes, of a people so numerous as the Hindus, and diffused over so large a portion of the globe, together with the invariable duration of that institution through a series of so many ages, is perhaps one of the most extraordinary circumstances to be found in the history of social order; especially when the humble state of the fourth class, or great body of the people, is considered.

The Hindu tradition concerning the origin of casts is, that, on the creation of human beings, the Brahmins proceeded from the mouth of Brahma; the Cshatryas from his arms; the Vaisyas from his thighs; and the Sudras from his feet. To the first was committed the instruction of mankind; to the second, their protection; to the third, the cares of traffic and agriculture; and to the fourth, servitude.

With respect to the privileged cast of Brahmins, when the Hindu institutions existed in their purity, there were four religious orders (Asrama) to one of which every Brah

min belonged; the two first were obligatory, the other two optional.

I. The Brachmachari, or those who studied, and occupied themselves with the study of theology. The second book of the Institutes of Menu contains the rules of this order. The principal of these are, residence in the house where they study and are instructed, strict celibacy, and subsisting on alms.

II. The Griharta, or housekeeper. The third, fourth, and fifth books of Menu comprise rules for his observance, and the means by which he may lawfully gain a subsistence.

III. The Vanaprastha, or hermit, having no house or fixed habitation, but living in woods, and generally retired from the usual haunts of man.

IV. The Yati, or Yoghi, who devotes himself to penances and the performance of extraordinary vows.

The Griharta, or Brahmin-householder, is directed to derive a subsistence from sacrificing and teaching; and to employ his time in study. Hence there is a great variety of appellations for the various sub-divisions of such employments; as, 1st, Guru, a spiritual preceptor ;-2d, Acharya, a teacher of the Vedas;-3d, Upadhyaya, a teacher of a particular part of it ;-4th, Ritvij, an officiating priest ;5th, Purochita, a family priest to a king, or man of rank; —6th, Yajya, one who gains a subsistence by performing sacrifices for individuals;-7th, Grama Yajyaca, a priest hired by the inhabitants of a village to perform religious rites;-8th, Devalaca, a priest who has the charge of a temple. The three last offices are considered to be mean, and are never held by men of learning or family. Besides the above appellations, there are innumerable others, derived from the particular studies to which individuals

have devoted themselves; as, Srotriya, one skilled in the Vesta ;-Smarta, learned in the law;—Jyautisha, an astrologer, &c. &c.

Brahmins exercising these functions, and distinguished by these appellations, are found over every part of India at this day. But, exclusive of the occupations assigned by Menu to the sacerdotal class, multitudes of Brahmins are now found in the army and engaged in commerce. This deviation is not the consequence of distinctions among them, but the result of the general license granted by Menu, in times of distress, to seek a subsistence by the duties of inferior classes, when it cannot be procured by their own. The permission and its restrictions are contained in the tenth book of the Institutes of Menu. The whole period that has elapsed since the conquest of India, by the Mohammedans, is considered by Hindu casuists as a time of distress; and individuals have sought a subsistence, or fortune, by professions from which they were originally excluded. In a country where every man pursues the profession of his father, this naturally led to certain families of Brahmins becoming, in their occupations and pursuits, entirely secular, though this circumstance does not at all detract from the respect they personally require from the inferior classes, or exempt them from restrictions in regard to diet, from mixing with other tribes, or from the observance of other rules originally prescribed to their class.