friend are in the objective case, and that it ought to be in the same case; that is, whom, and not who.

When the verb to be is understood, it has the same case before and after it, as when it is expressed: as, " He seems the leader of the party;" "He shall continue steward;" "They appointed me executor;" "I supposed him a man of learning:" that is, "He seems to be the leader of the party," &c.

Passive verbs which signify naming, and others of a similar nature, have the same case before and after them: as, "He was called Cæsar ;" "She was named Penelope ;" "Homer is styled the prince of poets;" "James was created a duke;" "The general was saluted emperor ;" "The professor was appointed tutor to the prince ;" "He caused himself to be proclaimed king;" "The senate adjudged him to be declared a traitor."

From the observations and examples which have been produced, under this 4th subordinate rule, it is evident that certain other neuter verbs, besides the verb to be, require the same case, whether it be the nominative or the objective, before and after them. The verbs to become, to wander, to go, to return, to expire, to appear, to die, to live, to look, to grow, to seem, to roam, and several others, are of this nature. "After this event, he became physician to the king," "She wanders an outcast ;” "He forced her to wander an outcast," "He went out mate, but he returned captain;” “And Swift expires a driv'ler and a show;" "This conduct made him appear an encourager of every virtue;" "Hortensius died a martyr ;""The gentle Sidney lived the shepherd's friend.”

All the examples under this 4th division of the Eleventh Rule, and all others of a similar construction, may be explained on the principle, that nouns and pronouns are in the same case, when they signify the same thing, the one merely describing or elucidating the other.

5. The auxiliary let governs the objective case: as, "Let him beware," "Let us judge candidly;" "Let them not presume;" "Let George study his lesson."

Some of our verbs appear to govern two words in the objective case: as, "The Author of my being formed me man, and made me accountable to him." "They desired

me to call them brethren.” "He seems to have made him what he was."

We sometimes meet with such expressions as these: "They were asked a question;" "They were offered a pardon;" "He had been left a great estate by his father." In these phrases, verbs passive are made to govern the objective case. This licence is not to be approved. The expressions should be; "A question was put to them;""A pardon was offered to them;" "His father left him a great estate."

RULE XII.

ONE verb governs another that follows it, or depends upon it, in the infinitive mood: as, " Cease to do evil; learn to do well:" We should be prepared to render an account of our actions."

The preposition to, though generally used before the latter verb, is sometimes properly omitted: as, "I heard him say it;" instead of "to say it."

See vol. ii. p. 109.

THIS rule refers to principal, not to auxiliary verbs. If the student reflects, that the principal and its auxiliary form but one verb, he will have little or no difficulty, in the proper application of the present rule.

The verbs which have commonly other verbs following them in the infinitive mood, with the sign to, are Bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel; and also, let, not used as an auxiliary; and perhaps a few others: as, "I bade him do it," "Ye dare not do it;" "I saw him do it ;" "I heard him say it ;""Thou lettest him go."

This irregularity extends only to active or neuter verbs: for all the verbs above-mentioned, when made passive, require the preposition to before the following verb: as, "He was seen to go; "He was heard to speak in his own defence;""They were bidden to be upon their guard."

1. In the following passages, the word to, the sign of the infinitive mood, where it is distinguished by Italic characters, is superfluous and improper. "I have observed some satirists to use," &c. "To see so many to make so little conscience of so great a sin." "It cannot but be a delightful spectacle to God and angels, to see a young person, besieged by powerful temptations on every side, to acquit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out against the most violent assaults; to behold one in the prime and flower of his age, that is courted by pleasures and honours, by the devil, and all the bewitching vanities of the world, to reject all these, and to cleave steadfastly unto God."

2. This mood has also been improperly used in the following places: "I am not like other men, to envy the talents I cannot reach." "Grammarians have denied, or at least doubted, them to be genuine." That all our doings may be ordered by thy governance, to do always what is righteous in thy sight."

ચંદ્ર

The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, substantives, and participles: as, " He is eager to learn;" "She is worthy to be loved;" "They have a desire to improve ;""Endeavouring to persuade."

The infinitive sometimes follows the word as: thus, "An object so high as to be invisible;" "A question so obscure as to perplex the understanding."

66

The infinitive occasionally follows than after a compaHe desired nothing more than to know his own imperfections.”

rison

: as,

The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substantive, expressing the action itself which the verb signifies, as the participle has the nature of an adjective. Thus the

infinitive mood does the office of a substantive in different cases in the nominative: as, " to play is pleasant:" in the objective: as, "Boys love to play;" "For to will is present with me; but to perform that which is good, I find not."

The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently on the rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the conjunction that with the potential mood: as, "To confess the truth, I was in fault;" "To begin with the first;" "To proceed;" "To conclude;" that is, "That I may confess," &c.

The preposition to, signifying in order to, was anciently preceded by for: as, "What went ye out for to see." The word for before the infinitive, is now, in almost every case, obsolete. It is, however, still used, if the subject of the affirmation intervenes between that preposition and the verb: as, "For holy persons to be humble, is as hard, as for a prince to submit himself to be guided by tutors."

RULE XIII.

IN the use of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be observed. Instead of saying, "The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away;" we should say, "The Lord gave," and the Lord hath taken away." Instead of, "I know the family more than twenty years;" it should be "I have known the family more than twenty years."

See vol. ii. p. 110.

IT is not easy, in all cases, to give particular rules, for the management of words and phrases which relate to one another, so that they may be proper and consistent. The best rule that can be given, is this very general one, “To observe what the sense necessarily requires." It may, however, be of use, to exhibit a number of instances, in

which the construction is irregular. The following are of this nature.

"I have completed the work more than a week ago;" "I have seen the coronation at Westminster last summer." These sentences should have been; "I completed the work," &c.; "I saw the coronation," &c.: because the perfect tense extends to a past period, which immediately precedes, or includes, the present time; and it cannot, therefore, apply to the time of a week ago, or to last mid

summer.

"Charles has lately finished the reading of Henry's History of England :" it should be, "Charles lately finished,” &c.; the word lately referring to a time completely past, without any allusion to the present time.

"They have resided in Italy, till a few months ago, for the benefit of their health :" it should be, "they resided in Italy," &c.

"This mode of expression has been formerly much admired:" it ought to be, "was formerly much admired."

"The business is not done here, in the manner in which it has been done, some years since in Germany: it should be, "in the manner in which it was done," &c.

"I will pay the vows which my lips have uttered, when I was in trouble:" it ought to be, "which my lips uttered," &c.

"I have, in my youth, trifled with now prematurely assails me:" it youth, I trifled with health," &c.

health; and old age should be "In my

The five examples last mentioned, are corrected on the same principle that the preceding examples are corrected.

"Charles is grown considerably since I have seen him the last time:" this sentence ought to be, "Charles has grown considerably, since I saw him the last time."

"Payment was, at length, made, but no reason assigned for its being so long postponed:" it should be, "for its having been so long postponed."