66 there can be no difficulty in understanding that the adverb well modifies On Stanley!-On !— Were the last words of Marmion. 66 66 66 Here the adverb on manifestly refers to some verb understood in the mind, such as "march," drive," rush," or the like. The verb is suppressed, because it is indifferent to the speaker; the adverb is expressed, because it is of the utmost importance; because to the thoughts and feelings of the dying hero the mode of getting at the enemy was immaterial; but to get at them by some means or other was his most eager wish. The whole of the sentence is understood, when the adverb is responsive: as, "Will you come?—Yes." "When will you come?-Presently." "How often did he come?-Once." For these answers mean, "I will come certainly "-"I will come presently"-"He came once." And consequently the adverbs, yes, presently, and once, are to be taken as modifying the verbs" will come and "did come," respectively. 66 377. II.-The adverb, I say, is used to modify primarily a verb, an Modification. adjective nominal or pronominal, or a participle; or secondarily, another adverb. As Harris calls the verb, adjective, and participle, "attributives of the first order," he, by parity of reason, denominates the adverb "an attributive of a secondary order," or an attributive of an attributive." Harris, indeed, justly argues that the word 'Erippnua is of the same force and meaning as these phrases; for I have already shown that the word 'Pijμa is used by many writers to signify not only what is commonly called a verb, but also what are called adjectives and participles. Thus AMMONIUS says, κατὰ τοῦτο τὸ σημαινόμενον, τό μὲν ΚΑΛΟΣ, καὶ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΣ, καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα ΡΗΜΑΤΑ λέγεσθαι, καὶ οὐκ 'ONOMATA." According to this signification" (that is, of denoting the attributes of substance and the predicates in propositions), "the Of the verb. 66 And words, fair, just, and the like, are called verbs and not nouns.” 378. The verb, it must be remembered, asserts or manifests existence, either simply or together with some attribute of action or passion. The adverb, therefore, may either modify the attribute involved in the verb, or it may modify the mere assertion of existence. When it modifies the attribute, its operation is exactly similar to what will piesently be described in regard to the adjective. The conception of running is modified by the adverb swiftly, in the proposition "he runs swiftly," precisely as it is by the adjective swift in the proposition “he is a swift runner." The case is somewhat different when the adverb is considered as modifying the assertion of existence. If this be done with reference to the corporeal conceptions of place and time, we have, as to place, such positive conceptions as those marked by the adverbs here and there; and such relative conceptions as those marked by the adverbs where and whence. If I say that a given event happened here, my assertion is positive and is limited to a certain point of space, and by necessary implication contradicts the assertion not only that it did not happen at all, but that it happened at any other place than the one indicated. So with regard to time: if I say that a certain event is happening now, my assertion is positive and is limited to the present time; if I say it happened yesterday, it is equally positive and limited to a certain time past. Again, if I say the event in question happened where some other event had occurred, the local adverb where is relative; and if I say it happened when some other did, the temporal adverb when is also relative. It is scarcely necessary to add that local and temporal conceptions may be adverbially expressed under an endless variety of circumstances. The event in question may occur aboard, or ashore, aloft, or below, abroad, or at home; the ship may be cut adrift; the army may be marching homewards; the battle may cease awhile, it may be begun anew, it may terminate suddenly, &c. &c. &c. So, the assertion of existence contained in a verb may be modified by various mental conceptions, and these also may be expressed adverbially. Thus, in a proposition, the assertion if not simply affirmative (which of course needs no modification) may be modified by a negative as not, ne, nec; or it may be modified as to certainty, if clear, by the adverbs indeed, certainly, and if doubtful by the adverbs perhaps, forsan, &c.; or, as to mode, by the adverbs thus, so, as, &c.: or the assertion may be put interrogatively by the adverbs how, why, where, when; or responsively by the adverbs yes or no. The connection of propositions in an argument, and particularly of the premises with the conclusion, may be marked by such words as ergo, consequently, therefore, which some grammarians treat as adverbs, though others (and perhaps more accurately) hold to be conjunctions; a remark which applies generally to the adverbs called relative. 66 99.66 66 the Adjective. 379. The term adjective, as I have said, is here to be taken in its Of the widest sense, as including not only the adjective simple, or proper, but also the participle, or participial adjective, and the pronominal adjective. It is manifest that all the attributes which these various classes of words express are capable of modification. Thus, a house which is "lofty," may be "surprisingly lofty," or "very lofty," or "moderately lofty.' And in like manner we may speak of a remarkably intelligent youth," an over indulgent parent, a truly affectionate friend." So, when we use a participle, or a pronominal adjective, we may modify it by the aid of an adverb, as " much obliged," "greatly indebted," "wholly yours," "absolutely mine," "nobly born," "well bred," "highly gifted," "universally respected," "little moved," "less affected," "not so energetic," " equally judicious," ""how admirable !" "thus far," 66 по further." In all these instances, it is obvious, that the attribute expressed by the adjective undergoes some modification from the adverb. In truth, we form a double conception, as, first, a conception of loftiness with reference to the house, and, secondly, a conception of surprise with reference to the loftiness; so that the sentence house is surprisingly lofty" resolves itself into these other two sentences, "the house is lofty," and " the loftiness is surprising." Mr. Harris, therefore, had great reason to call the adverb an attributive of an attributive; for, in the latter of these two sentences, we find the word surprising" represents an attribute of that loftiness, which, in the prior sentence, was considered as an attribute of the house. It is not the house altogether which excites surprise, but only its quality of loftiness. A house may be both lofty and surprising, without being surprisingly lofty. These modifications of an attribute may regard either its quantity or its quality. Its quantity may be modified positively, that is, simply; or relatively, that is, comparatively. The adverbs thus used positively in regard to quantity continuous, are such as, much, little, sufficiently, parùm, satis, &c.; in regard to quantity discrete, such as twice, thrice, semel, decies, &c. Those used relatively, if by way of intension, are such as more, nimis, valdè, &c.; if by way of remission, such as less, vix, &c. The quality of an attribute may be modified positively by such adverbs as well, ill, nobly, benè, male, fortiter, &c.; or relatively, in regard to degree, by such as rather, potius, excessively, &c.; and in regard to similitude, by as, so, adeò, &c. 66 usc. 380. Such being the primary uses of the adverb, it is easy to con- Secondary ceive that the secondary use is similar. As the adjective modifies the substantive, and the adverb modifies the adjective, so may a second Improper adverb be applied to the former with the same power of modification. As the word admirably may be prefixed to good, so may very be prefixed to them both together; and we may say a very admirably good discourse;" in which, and the like instances, the analysis is similar to what I have before stated. The discourse is good, the goodness is admirable, the admiration is extreme. 66 381. To the classes of words which have been properly comprehended under the title of adverbs, some grammarians have added others which have no legitimate title to that appellation. Hence among the twenty-eight classes enumerated by Hickes, the twentyseven by Manutius, the twenty-one by Charisius, and those of other writers, we find enough to justify the sarcasm of Tooke, and to explain, if not to justify, the grave designation of the Stoics, who called this part of speech Havdéктŋy; because, as Charisius says, "Omnia in se capit, quasi collata per saturam concessâ sibi rerum varia potestate." Thus some reckon as adverbs, the nouns substantive Roma, domi, casu, and the like; some the nouns adjective vili, caro; some the pronouns mecum, tecum, nobiscum, vobiscum; some the verbs used interjectionally, age, amabo, quæso, and some the mere interjections heus! utinam! ecce! &c. These aberrations from grammatical principle may perhaps be accounted for, in part from the want of a clear and intelligible definition of the part of speech called an adverb, and in part from a mistaken impression of some writers, that adverbs and interjections are words of too insignificant a character to deserve serious attention. ແ Interjectio" (says Caramuel) " posset ad adverbium reduci, sed quia majoribus nostris placuit illam distinguere, non est cur in re tam tenui hæreamus.' "The interjection might be reckoned among adverbs, but since our predecessors have been pleased to distinguish it from them, we need not hesitate about so trifling a matter." However these errors may have arisen, it must be confessed that they have been shared by writers of no mean reputation. Vossius says, " Interjectiones a Græcis ad adverbia referuntur, atque eos sequitur etiam Boethius." Ben Jonson says, Prepositions are a peculiar kind of adverbs, and ought to be referred thither;" and Bishop Wilkins says, that "the difference between prepositions and adverbs is so nice, that it is hard in some cases to distinguish them." Yet it is manifest that a preposition can no more be considered as a peculiar kind of adverb, than a substantive can be considered as a peculiar kind of adjective or verb for the proper function of the preposition is to modify a conception of substance; and the proper function of the adverb is to modify a conception of attribute, either alone, or combined with an assertion: but the part of speech which names a conception of substance is the noun substantive; the part of speech which names a conception of attribute is a noun adjective; and the part of speech which asserts is the verb. Again, as to interjections, they do not serve to modify either noun or verb; but are interjected, as it were, between different nouns or verbs, and as Vossius says, "Citra verbi opem, sententiam complent;" 66 for though, in certain instances, the interjection may, both in signification and construction, supply the place of a verb, yet this, in no respect, modifies the signification of the following verb, but merely affects its construction in the sentence. Those authors, too, who do not differ in regard to the characteristics of whole classes, often seem to err strangely in allotting a particular word to its proper class. Dr. Johnson, a scholar certainly of great acquirements, designates as nouns substantive the words pell-mell, ding-dong, handy-dandy, pit-a-pat, and see-saw, when in the very examples which he quotes they are used as adverbs; and this is the more remarkable because he designates other words, of the very same formation and use, adverbs; ex. gr. helter-skelter, which certainly approaches as nearly to pell-mell, in its grammatical use, as it does in the mode of its formation, and in its general import. The acute and ingenious De Brosses calls the French chez an adverb. which is most manifestly a preposition, for chez moi, and apud me, are phrases exactly similar in construction. Even the learned Vossius calls the Latin mecastor an adverb, and R. Stephanus terms it "jurandi adverbium." Now mecastor is either from the Greek uà, and Castor, the name of a deity, and then it is literally, "No, by Castor!" or else it is "Me Castor adjuvet !" So help me Castor! and in either case it is an interjectional oath, used as a common expletive in conversation. Thus we find in Terence, "Salve, mecastor, Parmeno;" where mecastor cannot by any ingenuity be made to modify the verb salve, or indeed any other word; but is truly and properly an interjection, which all words of the same kind must be, such as Gadso! which though Mr. Tooke distinctly calls an oath, yet he preposterously reckons among the adverbs. Gadso! and 'Odso! were abbreviations of " by God it is so!" or "is it so, by God?" for men happily shrink from their own profaneness, and rather reduce their words to unmeaning exclamations, than advert seriously to their original import. As to the obscene Italian expression to which Tooke alludes, it had probably nothing to do with the interjection Gadso, however it may have furnished a hint to the unpolished satire of Ben Jonson, in the passage quoted from one of his plays. phrases. 382. III.-Having thus considered the various modifications of an Adverbial attributive, which adverbs are calculated to effect, I come to examine the different modes by which such modifications may be expressed; and as I have spoken of prepositional and conjunctional phrases, so I think it advisable here to notice certain adverbial phrases, which in process of time have become, or may become adverbs. By an adverbial phrase, I mean any combination of words, which in a complex sentence may stand in the place of an adverb. Thus we may say "this happened afterwards," or " this happened long afterwards," or "this happened many days afterwards," or this happened not many days afterwards." In the first case the adverb afterwards modifies the verb "happened;" in all the other cases the same adverb afterwards is modified, first by the adjective long used adverbially, then by the adjective and substantive many days forming an adverbial phrase, or 66 |