rically the growth of our other conjunctions. There is a class of words, however, which demands notice here, and which Mr. HARRIS says may be properly called adverbial conjunctions, because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions-of conjunctions as they join sentences; of adverbs as they denote the attributes of time and place." Such are when, where, whence, whither, whenever, wherever, &c. Upon the principle which I have adopted, these are to be called conjunctions when they conjoin sentences; but the name adverbial is not at all distinctive, because many other conjunctions have occasionally an adverbial use; and many prepositions when used conjunctionally serve to mark time or place. The scheme of arrangement which Harris has followed, is principally directed to the logical connection of sentences; but the connections of time and place are merely physical, and should therefore form a class apart. The term ordinative, which VOSSIUS applies to deinde, postea, &c., may not improperly designate the whole of this class. Thus, among ordinatives of time we should reckon whiles, till, o that, or, be: So, where is an ordinative of place in the following passage :— He rails Even there, where merchants most do congregate. Shakspeare. The ordinals, which I have included in the class of pronominal adjectives, such as first, second, &c., necessarily imply connection, and consequently the adverbs formed from them, are easily employed with a conjunctional force, as primò, secundò, tertiò, when placed at the beginning of sentences. The same also is to be observed of the adverbs used as relatives to these antecedents, such as deinde, item, puis, next, syne, lastly, &c. "Deinde," says VOSSIUS, "cùm verbo jungitur, ad circumstantiam temporis indicandum, adverbium est: conjunctio autem, cùm tantùm ad orationis juncturam pertinet." say, Accepit conditionem; dein quæstum occipit. Ils font estat d'aller à Orleans, à Blois, puis à Tours. Terentius. Cicero. Dict. de l'Academie. Burns. 66 cated. 371. It remains to be observed, that some conjunctions are used Reduplisingly, and others in a succession of two or more. Thus we may "both John and William came," "John and William came," or or both John and William, and also James came." It is ordained that proclamation be made, and that the judgment be recorded, and furthermore that the record be transmitted." Where two or more succeed each other with a mutual relation, there is sometimes a fixed order in the succession; ex. gr. 66 as- so;" SO- that:" "when-then," &c. On this subject VOSSIUS thus speaks-" Conjunctioni etiam accidit ordo; secundum quem aliæ sunt præpositiva, ut et, nam; aliæ postpositivæ, ut quoque, autem; aliæ communes, ut equidem, itaque. Igitur sæpiùs postponitur. Enim etiam est particula præpositiva, Terent. Phor. act. v. sc. viii. Enim nequeo solus. Ad postpositivas etiam pertinent encliticæ. Ex his, que interdum alteri verbo jungitur quàm nativus verborum ordo exigebat: ut apud HORAT. lib. ii. od. 19: Ore pedes tetigitque crura. Pro cruraque tetigit." These however are matters depending on the particular idiom of each language, and not governed by the philosophy of general grammar. 372. The case is different with the pleonasms and cumulations of Cumulations. conjunctions. These occur in all languages, and they therefore clearly arise out of principles common to the human mind in different countries. Hence VOSSIUS speaks of expletive conjunctions—“ Expletivæ sunt, quæ nullâ necessitate sententiæ, sed explendi tantùm gratiâ usurpantur. Ut quæ metri vel ornatus caussâ inseruntur. SALLUST. in Catil. Verùm enimverò is demum mihi vivere, et frui animá videtur; ubi verùm redundat." VIRGIL. in xii:— Equidem merui,nec deprecor, inquit. Plena fuerit sententia, licet equidem tollas." To this head are to be Well I know The clerk will ne'er wear hair on's face that had it. He will an' if he live to be a man : where either an or if is redundant; for they both signify the same, and Johnson is wrong in supposing that an' in this instance is a contraction of and. VOSSIUS refers these redundancies to the custom of ancient writers, "Nempe is veterum mos fuit, ut interdum conjungerent voces idem significantes." But they are not peculiar to any age or nation they are the result of hasty and inconsiderate habits of speech, which, it is true, are more common in the first formation of a language, than in more cultivated and civilized periods of history. Cumulation, however, is not always redundancy. When we find a sentence beginning thus-" but nevertheless if,” the conjunction but connects it with what goes before, and if with some subsequent sentence, and the word nevertheless alone may be called redundant, and yet not strictly so, since it adds a great force and emphasis to the word but. In the Greek language, this cumulation of conjunctions is frequent; and it is sometimes explained by an ellipsis. The HOOGEVEEN says "Hoc modo ảλλà vũvyɛ redditur nunc maximè, suppressâ per ellipsin voculâ &TоTE. Itа SOPHOCL. in Electr. v. 413 : *Ω Θεοὶ πατρῷοι, συγγένεσθέ γ' ἀλλὰ νῦν ! *O Dii patrii, adeste nunc maximè, vel nunc saltem! Plenior structura est "Ω θεοὶ πατρῷοι, εἴποτε συγγένεσθέ μοι, ἀλλὰ vũvye ovyyéveo0ɛ!—O Dii patrii, si unquam aliàs mihi adfuistis, at nunc adeste saltem!" And so much for the conjunction, which receives its grammatical character neither from the form nor position of the word, but from its office in connecting sentences with each other, enunciative or passionate, according to their different modes of relation. CHAPTER XIII. OF ADVERBS. treating 373. DIFFERENT grammarians have arranged the Adverb in different Order of parts of their systems. APOLLONIUS, followed by PRISCIAN, treats of them. it after the preposition and before the conjunction and interjection. SCALIGER also places it after the preposition. MANUTIUS places it between the verb and the participle; HARRIS after the participle and before the article. Most of the ancient grammarians, however, rank it as next preceding the preposition, conjunction, and interjection. In this order they are followed by VOSSIUS: and I am not sure that it may not be the best arrangement; but in our own language, and perhaps in others, there are many words used as adverbs, the explanation of which may appear more obvious and intelligible, when they are employed as prepositions or conjunctions. In this view, therefore, it may not be amiss that the consideration of the adverb should be postponed to that of the other two classes; but as there is no absolute dependence of any one of these classes on either of the two others, the order of their arrangement is comparatively unimportant. objection. 374. Mr. Tooke advanced a far more serious objection against the Tooke's prevalent doctrines concerning this part of speech, when he asserted, “that neither Harris, nor any other grammarian, seemed to have any clear notion of the nature and character of the adverb." After this he proceeded to give his own notions, not of the adverb in general, but of a number of adverbs in particular, from which, and from what he had before said of the conjunctions and prepositions, he left his readers to collect that knowledge which, in his opinion, no grammarian beside himself had ever acquired. As this does not appear to be a very fair way of treating the grammatical student, I shall endeavour to pursue a more satisfactory method, even at the hazard of adopting, from the ancient grammarians, some of those notions which appeared to Mr. Tooke so obscure, 375. The adverb was originally so called, because it was added to Definition. the verb, to modify its force and meaning; hence the Greek writers defined it thus: Ἐπίῤῥημα ἔστι μέρος λόγου ἄκλιτον, ἐπὶ τὸ ῥῆμα Tǹv ȧvapoρàv ëxov." The adverb is an indeclinable part of speech, having relation to the verb." The question of its being indeclinable or not, is unimportant in the present investigation, since this circumstance depends on the idiom of a particular language; but the relation which the adverb bears to the verb depends on the Science of Universal Grammar: and this relation is stated by most of the ancient grammarians as the peculiar property of the adverb. DONATUS makes it Sentences to which added. the only characteristic of this part of speech: Adverbium est pars orationis, quæ adjecta verbo significationem ejus aut complet, aut mutat, aut minuit. “The adverb is a part of speech, which being added to a verb, either completes, or diminishes, or alters its signification." VOSSIUS, however, observes, that the adverb is added not only to verbs, but to nouns and participles; and, consequently, that its name must be understood to have been given to it, not from the use to which it is always applied, but from that for which it most generally serves. Non solis adjicitur verbis, sed etiam nominibus et participiis: nomen igitur accepit non ex eo quod semper, sed quod plurimum fit. By the word nouns, Vossius, as he afterwards explains it, means adjectives, both nominal, pronominal, and participial. "We say," adds he, "benè disserens, as well as bène dicere, and benè doctus." And so we may say, prorsùs meus, propemodum suus, et magis nostras, as well as, prorsùs amicus, propemodum liber, magis Romanus, &c. For want of a clear and intelligible definition of the adverb, some writers have undoubtedly exposed themselves to the sarcasm of Tooke, who thus translates a sentence of SERVIUS: Omnis pars orationis, "every word," quando desinit esse quod est, "when a grammarian knows not what to make of it," migrat in adverbium, "he calls an adverb." It is impossible to avoid these errors, unless we first establish a definition of the adverb, to which, as a test, the various classes of words properly comprehended by different grammarians under this common designation may be applied. I venture therefore, with all becoming diffidence, to propose the following:-An adverb is a part of speech added to a perfect sentence, for the purpose of modifying primarily the conception expressed by a verb, an adjective nominal or pronominal, or a participle; or secondarily, that expressed by another adverb. In explicating this definition, I shall consider, first, the sort of sentence to which an adverb may be added; secondly, the modifications which it may effect; and, thirdly, the modes by which such modifications may be expressed. 376. I.-First, I say, the adverb is added to a perfect sentence, converting it, if categorical, from a pure into a modal one: and by a perfect sentence I here mean one which either enunciates some truth, or expresses some passion with its object. Therefore, even to a simple imperative the adverb may be added, since a perfect sense is expressed without it, and its addition only serves to modify the verb. Thus the word "fly !" is, in effect, a perfect sentence, for it implies an agent and an act, and it couples the conception of the act of flying with the conception of the person addressed, if not in the perception of the speaker, at least in his volition. To this sentence, therefore, an adverb may be added consistently with my definition, and we may say, "fly quickly!” After this explanation of the passionate sentence, it is scarcely necessary to explain the enunciative. When the verb expresses action or passion, there can be no difficulty: thus when Macbeth says: After life's fitful fever he sleeps well, |