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when fairly interpreted, that the word is not used by Xenophon or Thucydides. Now, ἐπι-στα-μαι, I stand on, ἐπι-στη-μη, οη standing, and ἐπι-στη-μων, an on stander, explain themselves very simply without the theory of either of our Lexicographers, and are quite as intelligible as our word under-stand.

A great evil in all Lexicons is the number of imaginary words which they contain; as all new Lexicons must in some measure be founded on existing Dictionaries, errors which were introduced two centuries ago are constantly repeated, and it is often no easy matter to decide if a word found in the Lexicon be really discoverable in any extant Greek author.

When the student has been taught to classify all words according to their terminations, he will perceive that most of those verbs called irregular are as free from all irregularities as many of those verbs that are termed regular; and more so than some of them. By comparing γι-γνω-σκω, βι-βρω-σκω, πι-πρασκω, &c. he learns that the first syllable is a reduplication common to many words in σκω and μι, that σκω is the verbal termination, and that the respective elements are γνω, βρω, and πρα. The characteristic of the future is σω or σομαι: he knows then at once, without further investigation, what are the general forms of the future; and the possible form of any other tense is just as easily ascertained. We say the possible form, because all Lexicons abound with many possible and perfectly analogous forms of verbs, which cannot be found in any of our existing books.

According to the common and traditional mode of explanation, γιγνωσκω is referred to a verb γνοω, or γνωω, which never did exist; but yet the pupil is taught to believe there was once such an old word. We are informed by Ewing that λαμβανw comes from ληβω : but there is no such word as ληβω, and there is no proof or probability that there ever was. If the element of λαμβανω be λαβ or ληβ, this no more proves the existence of ληβω, than it does that of ληβη, or ληβον, or ληβως, or ληβ with any other termination, possible or impossible. It is no apology to say that the pupil may be told that ληβω is merely imagined for the purpose of explanation: there is no occasion to imagine what is not true, and to instil an error which remains rooted in the memories even of many who pride themselves somewhat on Scholarship.

A few more examples of words in which the etymologies or the meanings are incorrectly exhibited will be appropriate here. All Lexicons must agree in many particulars, and in the greater number of examples where error is hardly possible, all Lexicons may be equally correct: it is only by selecting words which are

imperfectly explained that we can draw attention to those radical defects in principle which destroy the value of nearly all Lexicons hitherto published.

The verb δαπ (τ)-w is referred by Groves and Ewing to δαι-ω for its origin: if this were true, no etymological classification could be made, and no language, at least no unspoken language, could be learned with any precision. The elements δαι and δαπ are quite distinct: the latter contains the notion of consuming, and perhaps with the teeth, &c. like a wild animal, which is the explanation of Ewing. Yet both these Lexicographers correctly derive δαπ-ανη, δαπαν-αω from δαπτω, to which they might have added δαψι-λης and all its relations. In the Latin word daps, the same element is distinguishable.

It might be made a useful part of Greek instruction to take an element, and exhibit to the student all the existing words into whose composition it enters: the element ap, to fit, to adapt, would furnish useful lessons; its kindred element, aip, to raise, appears sometimes to dispute with it the claim to certain words. One of the largest classes of words comprehends the verbal adjectives in τος, such as λυ-τος, δο-τος, &c.

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Of this class is the word αρ-τος, prepared, arranged: the particular meaning of bread is put down in Lexicons as its general meaning. Groves, who here has Pisgah glimpse of its origin, says, "perhaps from αιρω, to raise:" Ewing says nothing about it. From αρ-τος we have the secondary word αρτ-ιος entire, whole, even as opposed to odd, which both our Lexicographers correctly deduce from apw, to fit, without appearing to suspect that αρ-τος is its immediate predecessor. Compare πολεμ-ος, πολεμ-ιος : ἰππ-ος, ἱππ-ιος : and other similarly related words in ος and τος. To the root ap belong the words αρτ-ηρ, αρτ-ηρια : we will not however quarrel with Ewing if he should prefer taking αρω as the origin of αρτ-ηρ: he says nothing of the etymology of αρτηρια, which clearly must go with that of its neighbour. The word αρτηρια was used to signify the windpipe, before it was applied to denote the vessels in the human body which are the channels of the blood: Groves, who knew something about this fact, has suggested a notable etymologyΑρτηρια, (perhaps from ano, air, and τηρεω, to keep) an artery: the pulse: a wind-pipe." Ewing says nothing of its origin, and contents himself with saying it is "an artery, the wind-pipe."

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This blunder of Groves, in confounding compound words, and those formed by a root and suffixes, naturally leads to the consideration of the general nature of compound words. It is a convenient mode of distinguishing these two different things, to call derived words those which are formed of a root and a suffix, as πηλ-ινος: and to name compounds those which are formed of two or more distinct and definite words, as λιθο-τομος. Cases may arise where it is not easy to say to which of the two classes a particular word belongs; but this difficulty does not diminish the value of the general distinction.

It may be useful for young students to observe, that a very large number of compounds is distinguishable by the first part of the compound ending with short o, as, λιθο-βολος, νομοδετης, χρυσο-φυλαξ : this short o ought not to be considered so much a part of the word λιθος (for it does not exist in the ele, ment λιθ) as the cement or glue which fastens together the two pieces λιθ, and βολ. For euphonical reasons this short vowel is frequently lengthened, as in, στεφανη-φορος, λαμπαδη-φορος, ασπιδη-φορος : ασπιδο-φορος is also given in the Lexicons, but the existence of the word may be doubted; at least we may affirm it is the less euphonic, and less accredited form.

It is inferred from the examination of a large number of compound words, that the lengthening of the antepenult-syllable in a word where there are many short vowels is one of those phænomena which are most especially worthy of attention. This long syllable may stand either between the two component parts, as in στεφαν-η-φορος, or it may be the lengthened initial vowel of the second part of the compound, as πολυ-ωνυμος, τριωροφος, αν-ηνεμος.

The observation of this fact will serve to furnish probable solutions of many difficult words.

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We will take a few examples where our Lexicographers are deceived, and unintentionally attempt to deceive others. Αρταμος (Ewing) is a cook, or butcher: he derives it from the verb αρταμεωι, which he says is formed of αρτος, and τεμνω. Groves agrees with him, except that he omits the verb αρταμεω, and adds the signification of butler to the word αρταμος. μος. must be a word of a comprehensive nature which can indicate with equal precision the functions of cook, butcher and butler : and yet this word may easily do so, as it signifies (consistently with its formation αρτ-αμος) a person who arranges and prepares things. His particular office, whether it be to cut rump-steaks, or to broil them, or to serve them up, will be indicated by other adventitious circumstances. If this word were formed of αρτος, and τεμνω, it would be αρτοτομος, like αρτοκόπος, αρτοποιος. Compare with the termination of αρταμος, the words ορχαμος, ουλαμος

Take the word αγρυπνος, and let us try our Lexicographers on that count. “ Αγρυπνος (Groves) from a privative, γρu, an atom, and ὑπνος, sleep: sleepless, watchful, &c." Ewing gives quoted, it should be inferred that these Lexicons contain nothing but blunders: in many respects they are like other Lexicons, correct where error is almost impossible. But it is in vain to look for any leading principle, which, under the guidance of judgment and learning, clears up obscurities, and smooths difficulties. The task remains for some one who will bring to it a sufficient knowledge of the kindred languages, and an intimate acquaintance with the Greek, founded on an accurate study of the best writers.

ART. VI. The Planter's Guide, or a Practical Essay on the best Method of giving immediate Effect to Wood by the Removal of large Trees and Underwood, &c. &c. By Sir Henry Steuart, Bart. Second Edition. John Murray, Albemarle-street, London.

A TREE is a living being. It possesses a complicated struc

ture, and performs numerous functions. It eats, and drinks, and digests, and respires, and circulates the matter it assimilates, and secretes and excretes. We have seen that the mouths by which it absorbs its aliment are the spongeolæ which terminate its capillary rootlets; that the tubes, by which its crude aliment is borne to the organs of digestion and respiration, are certain vessels which are situated in the woody part of the root, trunk, and branches; that these vessels convey the aliment, probably somewhat changed in its progress, through the leafstalk to the leaves; that when arrived at the leaves, it undergoes in these organs a complete change, and by processes analogous to those of digestion and respiration in animals, is converted into proper nutrient matter; that when thus duly fitted to afford nourishment to the tree, and to be assimilated into its proper substance, it is distributed to every part of the plant by the organs termed clostres; and that, finally, the bark wherever situated, whether in the branches, trunk, or roots, abounds with another order of tubes, termed "proper vessels," which separate, by processes analogous to those of secretion and excretion, the first, the juices proper to the plant, and which perform some useful purpose in its economy; and the second, those which would prove noxious to it, and which must therefore be expelled from its system.

Thus during the period of active vegetation there is always going on in a tree two opposite currents: one ascending, which passes through the woody part of the tree, and which consists of crude aliment; the other descending, which consists of two portions: first of that portion which is distributed to every part of the tree, and which must therefore flow alike through the wood and the bark: this consists of elaborated aliment, now properly prepared for the purposes of nutrition; and secondly, of that portion which flows only through the bark, which is contained only in the proper vessels, and which consists of substances either secreted or excreted from the elaborated aliment. The mechanism and action by which all this is performed we have already endeavoured to explain.

A living being is distinguished from an inorganic body by the performance of those actions which are called functions, through the instrumentality of the structures which are termed organs. The organ is the mechanism, which, on being put into motion, performs a peculiar and definite action, denominated the function. And it is put in motion by certain external physical agents, which are capable of so influencing it as to produce in it peculiar and definite effects, such as those agents can produce in nothing but an organ. These effects are termed impressions, and the physical agents that produce them are called stimulants. The impression being received, certain actions are excited, and these actions constitute the phenomena of life; every organized being is capable of a certain circle of them; its life consists in the performance of that circle; every being has its own circle, and consequently its own peculiar organs, and its own appropriate stimulants.

Heat, air and water are the stimulants which are indispensable to the existence of plants, and light is necessary to their health and vigour. To every plant there is a certain quantity of these stimulants, which is best adapted to its peculiar organization, and the more nearly the supply afforded it approximates to that quantity, the more perfectly are all its properties developed. The expedients which are brought into operation in culture do nothing, and can do nothing, but to regulate that supply. Yet indispensable as these physical agents are to the maintenance of life, it is, as we have elsewhere shown, one of the characteristic properties of life to resist, within a wide range, the ordinary operation of these very powers: for a plant may be brought to preserve its life, and even to flourish in water, the temperature of which approaches that of the boiling point: just as a living animal can support existence in a degree of heat which would actually roast its flesh were it deprived of the principle of vitality. It is in consequence of this power of resisting within an extensive range the influence of these physical agents, with which all living beings are endowed, that they are enabled to accommodate themselves to such an immense variety of external circumstances. Most animals can be brought to live in tolerable health and vigour in any region of the earth, and plants can be inured to almost any climate; for the very intensity of the impression produced VOL. XIII. Westminster Review.

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