avocational without making one's avocation more important than one's vocation. One's avocation calls him away from his regular duties. It is that secondary purpose which is pursued from sheer interest without the constraint of necessity. Is citizenship vocational or avocational? Is being a good neighbor, a good member of a family? In one sense one is called to these things more imperatively than he is called to make a living, for the state removes him from society if he fails to prepare himself to meet its requirements in these directions, while it provides him a living and lets him go free, if he is unable to make it for himself. Again no man would choose the possession of all goods in the world on the condition of solitariness, man being a social animal and formed by nature for living with others."1 Preparation for these life interests is essentially vocational, for they are constituent parts of the vocation of man. It is a preparation for necessary human working, but not for money-gaining working merely.

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Recognition of the fact that vocational education must be wider than trade training is furnished by the action of the school authorities of Edinburgh, Scotland, who combine four elements in their scheme of vocational training: (1) training for occupation, (2) training in the English language, 1 Aristotle, Ethics, Bk. IX, Sect. XI.

(3) training in citizenship, (4) physical training. "Education for a calling," says Dr. Kerschensteiner, "offers us the very best foundation for the general education of a man. We are far too much inclined to assume both in the old world and in the new, that it is possible to educate a man without reference to some special calling... Yet it lies in our power to make an education for a calling as many sided as any education can be.... Industry is not the aim of human society. The aim of society is the increase of justice and culture. . . . The schools are not merely technical or trade schools. They only make use of the pupil's trade as the basis of their educational work. The trade training which they give is not the object of the school. However thorough this training in a continuation school, for instance, in Munich, is, it is only the starting point for the wider general training for the education in practical and theoretical thinking, in consideration for others, in devotion to common interests, in social service for the state and community."1 A definite terminology is highly important for education, but arbitrary usage must not be allowed to transform words which have had a vital significance through the ages into narrowly

1 Three Lectures on Vocational Training by Dr. Georg Kerschensteiner, published by the Commercial Club of Chicago, 1911. Lecture I, pp. 2-9.

technical terms. There are other terms which have been used to designate gainful labor, such as trades, industries, occupations, etc. The education which prepares specifically for them is properly designated as trade, industrial, or occupational training. Of itself it does not constitute vocational education, though it forms a necessary part of it. That term should be saved to designate the purposive training for human living which all real education seeks to develop. Our contention, however, is not for the word but for the meaning. Genuine education of all sorts is either specifically preparatory or must become so. Trade instruction has no monopoly of this quality and must not be allowed to seem to have.

One must be trained to make a living; that does not mean that he can live by bread alone, and assuredly it does not mean that he can live without it. Much of the so-called industrial education has no other purpose than the making of boys and girls into hands. Much of the so-called cultural education makes dependents. Real education is satisfied with neither of these results. It strives to make self-sustaining persons. We may name its parts by distinctive names such as cultural instruction and technical or trade training, but they are all parts of one indispensable whole of preparation, not alternative species of education.

According to this analysis, we should recognize but one kind and various degrees of education, the broad and the narrow, or, when looked at from the standpoint of time, the long course and the short one. The object is the same for everyone, that is, the conscious reorganizing of experience in order to shape it into the best possible tool with which to anticipate and meet the future. There is none. too much wisdom in our forefathers' outlook, none too much first-hand experience which we ourselves can have with men and things, none too much stocking of our minds with the insight and the plans which the race has worked out in its efforts to meet the needs of life and which we may make our own by reliving them. Conditions of aptitude and opportunity force some of us to be satisfied with the narrower course, and others to demand. the wider training, but the difference is in degree, not in kind.

CHAPTER VI

LEARNING BY AND FOR DOING

Learning for doing. The student lives in three tenses. Behind him and about him is the world which his fellow men have learned to harness more or less successfully to their needs. About him and in front of him is the world which he must harness more successfully than they did. For he must not merely repeat their achievements of the days before; in him the race must grow in grace to meet the ever new demands of a living universe. For our purposes we may image life as one vast shop with the raw stuff which is to be worked into more serviceable shapes lying all about and the tools with which it is to be worked hanging in profusion from the walls. The master workman is busy at his task, and his apprentices beside him are learning their trade by helping him. They must acquire it not merely by rule of thumb, though, for the ways of working iron which are employed are imperfect and better ways must be found out; besides there are better metals than iron for many of the purposes for which we use it. One must master the