even quotes Latin, trusting to make himself intelligible to the ordinary capacity by the power of his homely illustrations.

Sentences and Paragraphs.-The chief thing worth noticing about Paley's sentences is that they are not constructed upon a few favourite forms, or with any leaning to a favourite rhythm. His is not a "formed" style; he is studious to express himself in simple language, without regard to measure or fluent melody.

It might be expected that, having no misleading desire for euphonious combinations, he would adopt the best arrangement for emphasis. But it is not so; he had not much natural turn for point, and does not seem to have been aware of the advantage of calling special attention to a word by its position.

The construction of his paragraphs is worth examining minutely. (1.) The first thing that strikes us in turning over his pages with an eye to the paragraph division is the unusual number of paragraphs. Every statement that he wishes to make prominent, he places in a paragraph by itself. Thus

'It will be our business to show, if we can,

"I. What Human Happiness does not consist in:

"II. What it does consist in.

"FIRST, then, Happiness does not consist," &c.

Again

"The above account of human happiness will justify the two following conclusions, which, although found in most books of morality, have seldom, I think, been supported by any sufficient reasons:

"FIRST, That happiness is pretty equally distributed amongst the different orders of civil society:

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SECONDLY, That vice has no advantage over virtue, even with respect to this world's happiness."

Once more

"The four CARDINAL virtues are, prudence, fortitude, temperance, and justice.

"But the division of virtue, to which we are in modern times most accustomed, is into duties:

'Towards God; as piety, reverence, resignation, gratitude, &c. "Towards other men (or relative duties); as justice, charity, fidelity, loyalty, &c.

"Towards ourselves; life, care of health, &c. The above short extracts show his arts of giving prominence to leading statements and leading words. He uses separate paragraphs; he makes divisions conspicuous sometimes by figures I., II., &c., sometimes by numbers printed in small capitals FIRST, SECONDLY, &c. ; he emphasises leading words by printing them in small capitals or in italics. The first chapter of the book on 'Moral Obligations' upon the question, Why am I obliged to

; as chastity, sobriety, temperance, preservation of

keep my word? is a very happy example of his perspicuous method. His chief defect in this respect is in the arts of indicating degrees of subordination. He has nothing but the difference between capitals and italics, and the difference between Roman numbers (I., II., &c.) and Arabic (1, 2, &c.) Owing to this defect, the multiplicity of small paragraphs is not a little confusing when we attempt to take in a chapter at a comprehensive glance. It would be a great advantage if the most important statements were printed in larger type.

(2.) The next thing that strikes us is the fulness of his phrases of reference, and the consequent ease of following his exposition. We are constantly kept to the point by such phrases as- -"We will explain ourselves by an example or two;" "This will serve for one instance; another is the following;" "For this is the alternative. Either or . ;" and so forth.

.

.

(3.) When we take special paragraphs in detail, we find that the exposition is not so perspicuous as we should expect from the perspicuity of the larger divisions. On examination we find the reason to be that he does not always keep the main subject prominent, but in his easy way changes the point of view. In the following passage, though the separate statements are simple, they cannot be put together coherently without an effort:

"The art in which the secret of human happiness consists, is to set the habits in such a manner that every change may be a change for the better. The habits themselves are much the same; for whatever is made habitual, becomes smooth and easy, and nearly indifferent. The return to an old habit is likewise easy, whatever the habit be. Therefore the advantage is with those habits which allow of an indulgence in the deviation from them."

Here the remark about the return to an old habit is not so put as to show its relevance. It were better omitted at that particular stage. Perhaps the following would be a simpler statement:

"The great art of human happiness is to set the habits in such a manner that every change may be a change for the better. In a habit itself there is little either of pleasure or of pain; whatever is made habitual becomes smooth, easy, and nearly indifferent. The pleasure or pain lies in the departure from a habit. This being so, our wisdom is to form such habits as may be changed for the better, and are not likely to be changed for the

To be sure, the difference between the two modes of statement is slight; still in exposition every little helps, and changes that seem trifling in a short passage, may, if carried through a chapter, make a very substantial difference to the ease of the reader. It is only by slight changes that Paley's method can be improved upon; and the student of popular exposition would do well to attend to such improvements.

QUALITIES OF STYLE.

Simplicity and Perspicuity are the eminent qualities of Paley's style. We have already said that the diction, though occasionally Latinised and technical, is upon the whole familiar, and that the structure, with certain possibilities of improvement, is upon the whole perspicuous and easy to follow. But the simple diction and perspicuous structure are by no means the only elements of his popular style.

He

(1.) It is somewhat of a paradox to say concerning a writer on Moral and Political Philosophy, Christian Evidences, and Natural Theology, that his subject-matter is not abstruse. Of course, Paley's subject-matter is abstruse compared with the subject-matter of mere narrative, or of essays on the minor morals. But it is not so abstruse as it might be, considering the professed themes. is careful not to take up any doctrine that is too deep or too subtle for popular exposition. He knows either by instinct or by definite purpose where to stop. He makes no pretence of going to the very root of a matter. In discussing moral obligation he does not enter upon the Freedom of the Will. In his Natural Theology' he does not enter upon external perception. In considering cases of conscience, he restricts himself to "the situations which arise in the life of an inhabitant of this country in these times." "I have," he says, "examined no doubts, I have discussed no obscurities, I have encountered no errors, I have adverted to no controversies, but what I have seen actually to exist." In saying all this, we must not forget that such subjects as Paley does think fit to discuss might be treated in a very abstruse manner. Only it is necessary to remember that the popular character of his exposition depends to some extent upon the choice of subject-matter.

(2.) He has a habit of stating principles in their application to a concrete case, and he chooses very homely illustrations. These are undoubtedly the main secrets of the simplicity of his style.

A good example of his simple way of stating disputed principles by bringing them to bear on a supposed case, is seen in his chapter on the "moral sense." He begins the chapter by relating the story of Caius Toranius, who in the proscription by the triumvirate was betrayed to the executioners by his own son. then proceeds

He

"Now the question is, whether, if this story were related to the wild boy caught some years ago in the woods of Hanover, or to a savage without experience, and without instruction, cut off in his infancy from all intercourse with his species, and, consequently, under no possible influence of example, authority, education, sympathy, or habit; whether, I say, such a one would feel, upon the relation, any degree of that sentiment of disapprobation of Toranius's conduct which we feel, or not?

"They who maintain the existence of a moral sense; of innate maxims; of a natural conscience; that the love of virtue and hatred of vice are instinctive; or the perception of right and wrong intuitive; (all which are only different ways of expressing the same opinion,) affirm that he would.

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not.

They who deny the existence of a moral sense, &c., affirm that he would

"And upon this, issue is joined.

"As the experiment has never been made, and, from the difficulty of procuring a subject (not to mention the impossibility of proposing the question to him, if we had one), is never likely to be made, what would be the event, can only be judged of from probable reasons.

He then proceeds to state the pros and cons.

No better instance could be had of the simplicity of his examples and comparisons than the well-known pigeon illustration. It constitutes the first chapter of the book on 'Relative Duties,' and is headed On Property :

"If you should see a flock of pigeons in a field of corn; and if (instead of cach picking where and what it liked, taking just as much as it wanted, and no more) you should see ninety-nine of them gathering all they got into a heap; reserving nothing for themselves but the chaff and the refuse; keeping this heap for one, and that the weakest, perhaps worst, pigeon of the flock; sitting round and looking on, all the winter, whilst this one was devouring, throwing about, and wasting it: and if a pigeon more hardy or hungry than the rest, touched a grain of the hoard, all the others instantly flying upon it, and tearing it to pieces; if you should see this, you would see nothing more than what is every day practised and established among men. Among men, you see the ninety-and-nine, toiling and scraping together a heap of superfluities for one (and this one, too, oftentimes the feeblest and worst of the whole set, a child, a woman, a madman, or a fool), getting nothing for themselves all the while but a little of the coarsest of the provision which their own industry produces; looking quietly on, while they see the fruits of all their labour spent or spoiled; and if one of the number take or touch a particle of the hoard, the others joining against him, and hanging him for the theft." 1

Clearness.-Perspicuity is possessed by Paley in a very high degree, but the precision of his statements and definitions is a good deal affected by his paramount desire to be popular. Too clear-headed to run into confusion, he is at the same time anxious to accommodate himself to the plainest intelligence, and, like many simple writers, purchases simplicity at the expense of exactness. His purpose is to be easily understood by the mass, and he deliberately and avowedly prefers a division or definition. because it is common and popular. His classification of the virtues is an example (see p. 491). His consideration of "what

1 An account of Paley can hardly be considered complete without this illustration. It has a historic interest. It is said that when Paley's name was suggested to George III. as one that might deserve a bishopric, the King cried— "Paley-hae! hae! pigeon Paley?" whereby our author's hopes of such promotion were ruined for ever.

we

mean to say when a man is OBLIGED to do a thing" is a favourable specimen of his popular way of defining, and of his care to be as exact as is consistent with popular usage:

"A man is said to be obliged when he is urged by a violent motive resulting from the command of another.'

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FIRST, The motive must be violent.' If a person who has done me some little service, or has a small place in his disposal, ask me upon some occasion for my vote, I may possibly give it him, from a motive of gratitude or expectation: but I should hardly say that I was obliged to give it him ; because the inducement does not rise high enough. Whereas, if a father or a master, any great benefactor, or one on whom my fortune depends, require my vote, I give it him of course, and my answer to all who ask me why I voted so and so is, that my father or my master obliged me; that I had received so many favours from, or had so great a dependence upon, such a one, that I was obliged to vote as he directed me.

"SECONDLY, 'It must result from the command of another.' Offer a man a gratuity for doing anything-for seizing, for example, an offenderhe is not obliged by your offer to do it; nor would he say he is; though he may be induced, persuaded, prevailed upon, tempted. If a magistrate or the man's immediate superior command it, he considers himself as obliged to comply, though probably he would lose less by a refusal in this case than in the former.

"I will not undertake to say that the words obligation and obliged are used uniformly in this sense, or always with this distinction: nor is it possible to tie down popular phrases to any constant signification; but whereever the motive is violent enough, and coupled with the idea of command, authority, law, or the will of a superior, there, I take it, we always reckon ourselves to be obliged.

“And from this account of obligation, it follows, that we can be obliged to nothing, but what we ourselves are to gain or lose something by for nothing else can be a violent motive' to us. As we should not be obliged

:

to obey the laws or the magistrate, unless rewards or punishments, pleasure or pain, somehow or other depended upon our obedience; so neither should we, without the same reason, be obliged to do what is right, to practise virtue, or to obey the commands of God."

Strength, &c.-The preceding extracts give a fair idea of the amount of force in Paley's composition; he never soars or declaims. No other quality of his style need be specially noticed. We have already remarked his indifference to melody in the structure of his sentences. Unless in the vulgarity of his illustrations, he cannot be said to offend against good taste; he is a homely expositor who never even in an illustration makes any pretence to touch the finer sensibilities, and never being in the region of art, cannot be caught trespassing.

KINDS OF COMPOSITION.

Description.-Paley's anatomical descriptions in his 'Natural Theology' have been much admired. There is nowhere, perhaps, a better field for the display of perspicuous descriptive power than in describing the complicated mechanism of the human