"And if any one can also interpret the same book allegorically, he sees that its internal sense excels the simplicity of the letter as much as apples do the leaves of the trees on which they grow." All his expositions of the Old Testament books are highly allegorical. This was doubtless owing to the writers whom he followed, and whose excesses he was not careful to avoid. He took their comments just as he found them, with all their fanciful aspects. Hence, Notker justly affirms, "he wrote things more pleasant than necessary, inasmuch as he endeavoured to convert simple history into allegory."† In the New Testament he chiefly confined himself to extracts from Augustine, as is stated in the prefaces to the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistle to the Romans. Here he followed the grammatical method. The sources from which he drew his comments were not so allegorical as those in the Old Testament, and hence he produced better explications. As an interpreter of sacred Scripture, Bede cannot be placed in a high rank, although he possessed talents and learning remarkable in the age to which he belonged. It was the fashion to be a compiler; and he aspired to no higher employment, although his abilities were probably equal to some of the writers from whom he laboriously gleaned. Alcuin (+804.)- Flaccus Alcuin was a native of Yorkshire, and was born about the year of Bede's death. In his native country he was held in so high esteem as to be intrusted with an embassy to Charlemagne, by Offa king of Mercia. The emperor persuaded him to take up his abode at the court. He died in the monastery of St. Martin at Tours, A. d. 804. Alcuin, like Bede, was a writer of catena. His learning was equal or even superior to that of his countryman; and in an age of general ignorance his attainments were extraordinary. But the practice which he adopted, of making extracts from preceding commentaries, puts him in the same position as his distinguished predecessor. The true interpretation of Scripture cannot be advanced by this compilation-system. His knowledge of the Greek language, an attainment exceedingly rare in the eighth or ninth centuries, was probably inferior to that of Bede; but as a general scholar he seems to have been his superior. Et si quis eundem (librum Tobiæ) etiam allegorice novit interpretari, quantum poma foliis, tantum interiorem ejus sensum videt simplicitati literæ præstare. Præf. in Allegor. Expos. in Tobiam, pp. 347, 8, vol. iv. + Scripsit magis jucunda quam necessaria, quippe qui simplicem historiam vertere conatus est in allegoriam. The "interrogationes et responsiones" on the book of Genesis are a compendium of Jerome's questions and the Moralia of Gregory. In Ecclesiastes he follows Jerome.* His seven books of Commentaries on John's gospel are compiled from Augustine, Ambrose, Gregory, and Bede.† In commenting on the epistles to Titus and Philemon, he took Jerome for his guide; in that to the Hebrews, Chrysostom. Rhabanus Maurus (†856.)—Rhabanus Maurus was born at Maintz in 776. He was a pupil of Alcuin, and afterwards rose to be archbishop of Maintz. His learning was far superior to that of any commentator in the eighth or ninth century. He was acquainted not only with the Latin and Greek languages, but with the Hebrew and Chaldee. In consequence of his uncommon erudition and attainments, his works obtained greater popularity, and exerted much more influence than those of Bede or Alcuin. The chief exegetical production by which he is known is his Allegoria in Universam Sacram Scripturam. The following extract will shew the hermeneutical principles adopted in it. "Whoever desires to arrive at a knowledge of sacred Scripture, should previously consider with attention when the narrative is to be understood historically, when allegorically, when anagogically, when tropologically. These four modes of understanding it, we call the four daughters of one mother wisdom; and we cannot obtain a full acquaintance with all the secrets of wisdom, without previously knowing the four. By these, the mother wisdom feeds the sons of her adoption, bestowing upon youth and such as are of tender age, drink, in the milk of history; on such as have made proficiency in faith, food in the bread of allegory. To the good, such as strenuously strive and labour in good works, she gives a satisfying portion in the savoury nourishment of tropology. To those, in fine, who have raised themselves above the common level of humanity by a contempt of earthly things, * In quem librum ex Sanctorum opusculis Patrum, ac maxime de Beati Hieronymi Commentario, parvum composui breviarium. Præf. in Ecclesiast. + "Primo omnium, Augustini suffragia quærens qui majore studio hujus sancti Evangelii exponere nisus est sacratissima verba. Deinde ex opusculis Sancti Ambrosii sanctissimi Doctoris aliqua trahens, nec non ex Homeliis præcipui Patris Gregorii Papæ, vel ex Homeliis beati Bedæ Presbyteri multa assumens, aliorumque Sanctorum Patrum, sicut invenire potui, interpretationes posui, magis horum omnium sensibus et verbis utens quam meæ quicquam præsumptioni committens, cautissimo plane stilo prævidens, divina opitulante gratia, ne quid contrarium Sanetorum Patrum sensibus ponerem." Epist. ad Gislam et Richtrudam, prefixed to the Commentary. and advanced to the highest by heavenly desires, she gives the sober intoxication of theoretic contemplation in the wine of anagogy. History, which narrates examples of perfect men, excites the reader to imitate their sanctity; allegory excites him to know the truth in the revelation of faith; tropology encourages him to the love of virtue by improving the morals; and anagogy promotes the longing after eternal happiness by revealing everlasting joys. Since then it appears, that these four modes of understanding the Holy Scriptures unveil all the secret things in them, we should consider when they are to be understood according to one of them only, when according to two, when according to three, and when according to all the four together."* After reading this passage we need not be surprised, that the historical sense is frequently neglected and undervalued. The writer in quest of a mystical meaning overlooked the obvious.† His commentary on the gospel by Matthew was taken, according to his own statement, from fourteen of the fathers-eleven Latin, and three Greek. Their names are affixed to the extracts made from their works. What is added by himself he has marked with his own name. His compilations contain much that is excellent belonging to a former period. Above all, they served to diffuse a practical, Christian spirit. * Walafrid Strabo (+849). — Strabo was a pupil of Rhaban Quisquis ad sacræ Scripturæ notitiam desiderat pervenire, prius diligenter consideret, quando historice, quando allegorice, quando anagogice, quando tropologice suam narrationem contexat. Has namque quatuor intelligentias, viz. historiam, allegoriam, tropologiam, anagogiam, quatuor matris sapientiæ filias vocamus, ad cujus inquisitionem plena ipsarum agnitio, totius quod ei inest secreti sic manifestatio, nisi illarum prius inquisita cognitione, pertingere nequimus. Mater quippe sapientia per has, adoptionis filios pascit, conferens incipientibus atque teneris, potum in lacte historiæ; in fide autem proficientibus, cibum in pane allegoria; bonis vero et strenue operantibus et operibus bonis insudantibus, satietatem in sapida refectione tropologia; illis denique, qui et ab imis per contemptum terrenorum suspensi, et ad summa per cœleste desiderium sunt provecti, sobriam theoricæ contemplationis ebrietatem in vino anagogiæ. Historia namque perfectorum exempla quæ narrat, legentem ad imitationem sanctitatis excitat: allegoria in fidei revelatione ad cognitionem veritatis: tropologia in instructione morum ad amorem virtutis: anagogia in manifestatione sempiternorum gaudiorum ad desiderium æternæ felicitatis. Cum igitur constet has quatuor sacræ Scripturæ intelligentias, omne quod et inest secretum revelare; nobis considerandum est, quando secundum unam solam, quando secundum duas, quando secundum tres, quando etiam secundum omnes simul quatuor, intelligi velit. Tom. 5, p. 749 (Opera, Coloniæ Agrippinæ, 1626, 6 vols. fol.) + Sæpe enim in quibusdam locis et historia servanda est et allegoria, et sæpe in quibusdam, sola exquirenda est allegoria, &c. Maurus, and afterwards abbot of Reichenau near Constance. He obtained great fame from a commentary on the Bible called Glossa Ordinaria, which was compiled from the writings of the fathers, especially the commentaries of his preceptor. The epithet ordinaria shews its popularity. It was, says Neander, “the ordinary exegetical hand-book of the mediaval age." So great was the value attached to it, that Peter Lombard was wont to call it, by way of eminence, auctoritas. Thomas Aquinas explains its text, as if it were the text of Scripture itself. For the period of six centuries it was regarded as nothing less than an oracle. It has been thought, however, not without reason, that the work proceeded in its present form from several persons, by whom it was successively enlarged. Its value is small. Unlike a true glossary, it is not limited to an explanation of the letter of the text, but contains distinctions and subtilties of no utility. The origin of these glossa is a proof of the increasing ignorance, degeneracy, and indolence of the age. When the catena began to be too copious, a demand was made for their abridgment, that they might be more easily used. Thus the glosses were compiled from compilations. They were extracts from extracts. The glossa ordinaria of Strabo was a marginal gloss distinguished from the interlineary by its position in regard to the text. The former was written at the side of the text; the latter, between the lines. The first interlineary gloss was made by Anselm, at the beginning of the 12th century. Druthmar (+850.)-Christian Druthmar, surnamed the grammarian, was a Benedictine monk belonging to Corbie in Aquitania, and flourished about the middle of the ninth century. As an interpreter of Scripture he forms a rare exception to the times in which he lived. He followed the grammatical method. Not contented, too, with the mechanical task of compilation, he exercised his own independent judgment, and produced a specimen of commentary equalled by none of the Latins in the middle ages. His knowledge of the Greek language was fundamental, as is seen by the frequent adduction and explanation of the original words. When asked why he undertook a commentary on the four gospels after Jerome, he replied, that the latter had omitted many words as unimportant. The following extract from the Prologue gives his reason for following the historic, rather than the spiritual sense. "I have studied to follow the historic more than the spiritual sense, because it seems to me irrational to seek for spiritual knowledge in any book, and to be utterly ignorant of the historical; since history is the foundation of all knowledge. The latter, therefore, should be first investigated and embraced; for without it, one cannot pass with security to any other explication.' His exposition of Matthew xxvi. 26, &c., opposed as it is to the dogma of transubstantiation, gave great offence to the adherents of the Romish church; and they charged the editor Secerius with corrupting the place. It was abundantly proved, however, that Druthmar's words were fairly given.‡ Claudius. The celebrated Claudius bishop of Turin, by birth a Spaniard, is known as the author of a commentary on the epistle to the Galatians. It is chiefly extracted from Jerome and Augustine. A few remarks of his own are subjoined. It is not necessary to mention the mere writers of catenæ in this century, such as Smaragdus, Florus Magister, Haimo, Remigius, Sedulius, and Paschasius Radbert, the last of whom, though objecting to the name of a compiler, is nothing more; as his commentary on Matthew is taken from Chrysostom, Jerome, Ambrose, Augustine, Gregory, and Bede. Ecumenius. To the tenth century belongs Ecumenius, bishop of Tricca in Thessaly, whose compilation from the exegetical works of the earlier fathers is among the most copious extant. That it proceeded from one author, is proved by the similarity of method and expression apparent throughout. The writer has occasionally given his own opinion. In doing so he has such phrases as, "I think," "with all these expositions take the following also if you wish." The commentaries in question embrace the Acts of the Apostles, the Pauline and all the Catholic epistles. The names of the original writers are not always given, and their words are often epitomised. The commentaries of Chrysostom are the principal source from which the extracts are taken. Cyril of Jerusalem, Basil, the two Gregorys, Isidore, Methodius, Photius, Athanasius, and Theodoret have also been * Studui plus historicum sensum sequi quam spiritalem, quia irrationabile mihi videtur, spiritalem intelligentiam in libro aliquo quærere, et historicam penitus ignorare, quum historia fundamentum omnis intelligentiæ sit, et ipsa primitus quærenda, et amplexanda, et sine ipsa, perfecte ad aliam non posse transiri. Prolog. in Commentar. in Evang. Matthæi. Bibliotheca Vet. Patrum. tom. xv. p. 86. By Edmund Albertinus, who published an edition at Strasburg, A. D. 1514. Η εγώ νομίζω - μετά πάντων καὶ ταῦτα δέξαι εἰ βούλει. |