court was thus disgraced, Agesiláus, king of Sparta, joined with the Asiatic Greeks, was making rapid conquests in western Persia; and he would probably have dismembered the empire, had not the troubles excited in Greece by a lavish distribution of Persian gold, compelled him to return home.

The remainder of the reign of Artaxerxes was singularly unfortunate he attempted to reduce Egypt, but his efforts failed, owing to a disagreement between the Athenian auxiliaries and the Persian commanders; Cy'prus regained its independence; and the spirit of revolt spread through all western Asia. His domestic calamities were still more afflicting: he was obliged to punish his oldest son Daríus with death, for conspiring against him; O'chus, his youngest son, murdered his brother, to open a path to the succession; and Artaxerxes, overcome by such a complication of miseries, died of a broken heart.

O'chus, on the accession (B. c. 360), took the name of Artaxerxes III.; and, to secure himself on the throne, put to death no fewer than eighty of the royal family. Artabázus, the satrap of Asia Minor, attempted to take advantage of the unpopularity which those crimes brought on the monarch; and, aided by the Thebans and Athenians, made a vigorous effort to seize the throne. O'chus, however, was as conspicuous for his military prowess as for his crimes; he defeated Artabázus, and forced him to seek refuge in Greece. He next marched against the Phoenician insurgents, who were supported by the Cypriots and Egyptians: the treason of the general of the confederates gave O'chus an easier victory than he had expected, and he levelled the city of Sidon with the ground. Being joined by a powerful body of Greek auxiliaries, he recovered the island of Cyprus, and once more reduced it to a Persian province. But the king's cruelties were not compensated by his victories; and he was at length poisoned by the eunuch Bagóas, who placed Ar'ces, the youngest son of O'chus, on the throne.

Ar'ces, after a brief reign, suffered the fate of his father; and the treacherous Bagóas transferred the crown to Daríus Codoman'nus, a descendant of Daríus Nóthus (B. c. 336). The eunuch hoped that by raising so remote a branch to the throne, he would be permitted to retain royal power in his hands; but Daríus soon asserted his independence, and Bagóas prepared to remove him by poison. The treachery was discovered; and Daríus compelled the baffled eunuch to drink the medicated portion that he had prepared. But the fate of the Persian empire was now at hand; Alexan'der the Great of Macedon appeared in Asia, and his brave little army scattered the myriads of Persia like chaff before the wind. After the loss of the two battles of Is'sus and Arbéla, Daríus, while seeking refuge in a remote part of his empire, was murdered by the eunuch Bes'sus; and Asia received a new master.*

The Persians inherited the commercial power of the Babylonians and Phoenicians; but they opened no new branch of trade, and scarcely maintained those they found already established. It is not, therefore, necessary to repeat here what has been said in the preceding chapters on the commerce of central Asia.

See the history of Macedon in a following chapter.

CHAPTER VII.

PHOENICIAN COLONIES IN NORTHERN AFRICA,

ESPECIALLY

CARTHAGE.

SECTION I.-Geographical Outline of Northern Africa.

ALTHOUGH Africa was circumnavigated at a period of very remote antiquity, the interior of the country still remained unexplored, and the southern part, on account of the difficulty of navigation in the ocean, was neglected until the knowledge of its discovery was forgotten. But the northern coast bordering on the Mediterranean became the seat of flourishing Greek and Phoenician colonies. This extensive district was divided by nature into three regions, or bands, of unequal breadth, nearly parallel with the sea-line: 1, the maritime country, consisting generally of very fertile districts, whence it was called Inhabited Africa, is now named Barbary; 2, a rugged mountainous country, whose loftiest peaks form the chain of Mount Atlas, abounding in wild beasts and palm-groves, whence it was called by the ancients the Land of Lions, and by the moderns Beledulgeríd, or the Land of Dates; the Romans usually named it Gætúlia; 3, a vast sandy desert, which the Arabs call Sahára.

From the chain of Mount Atlas several small rivers flow into the Mediterranean by a short northern course; but there are no streams of importance on the south side of these mountains, and no great river in the interior until we reach the remote Niger, concerning which the ancients had very imperfect information; indeed, nothing was known with certainty of its true course, until the recent discovery of its mouth by the Landers.

Proceeding westward along the shore from Egypt, Africa presented the following political divisions: 1, Marmar'ica, a sandy tract tenanted by nomad tribes; 2, Cyrenaica, a fertile territory, occupied by Greek colonies, extending to the greater Syr'tis; its chief cities were Cyréne, and Bar'ca; 3, Régio Syr'tica, the modern kingdom of Trip'oli, a sandy tract subject to the Carthaginians, but almost wholly occupied by nomad hordes; 4, the domestic territory of Carthage, which forms the modern kingdom of Túnis; 5, a very fruitful country subject to the Carthaginians, the northern part of which was named Byzacéna, and the southern Zeugitána; and, 6, Numid'ia and Mauritánia, occupied during the Carthaginian age by nomad hordes; but having some Carthaginian colonies along the coasts.

Carthage was built on a peninsula in the interior of a large bay, now called the gulf of Tunis, formed by the projection of the Hermaan promontory (now Cape Bon) on the east, and the promontory of Apollo (now Cape Zebid) on the west. The peninsula was about midway between Utica and Tunis, both of which could be seen from the walls of Carthage; the former being about nine, and the latter only six miles distant: it was joined to the land by an isthmus averaging three miles in length; and on the seaside there was a narrow neck of land projecting westward, which formed a double harbor, and served as a mole or breakwater for the protection of shipping. Toward the sea the city was fortified only by a single wall; but the isthmus was guarded by the citadel Byr'sa, and a triple wall eighty feet high and about thirty wide.

The African territory of Carthage extended westward along the coast of the pillars of Hercules, and eastward to the altars of the Phila'ni, which marked the frontier between the territories of Cyrene and Carthage. Southward, the dominions of Carthage extended to the Tritonian lake; but many of the nomad tribes beyond these limits paid nominal obedience to the republic.

The fertile provinces of Carthage, occupied by people who tilled the soil, extended from Cape Bon, in a direct line, to the most eastern angle of the Triton lake, a distance of nearly two hundred geographical miles. Its average breadth was one hundred and fifty miles.

The foreign possessions of Carthage included the Balearic islands, Cor'sica, Sardínia, and the smaller islands in the Mediterranean, the southern part of Sicily and Spain, some settlements on the western coast of Africa, and the Fortunate islands in the Atlantic, which are probably the Canaries, and the fertile Madeira.

SECTION II.-Social and Political Condition of Carthage.

THE government of Carthage was formed by circumstances; it was originally monarchical, like Tyre, its parent state; but at a very early period it assumed a republican form, in which aristocracy was the prevailing element, though the power of the people was not wholly excluded. There were two kings, or chief magistrates, called Suffe'tes (the shophet'im, or judges, of the Hebrews), who appear to have been nominated by the senate, and then presented for confirmation to the general assembly of the people. There was a double senate; a syned'rium, or house of assembly, and a select council, denominated. gerúsia, which was composed of a hundred of the principal members of the syned'rium, and formed the high court of judicature.

Public affairs were not submitted to the assembly of the people, except when there was a difference of opinion between the suffétes and the senate, when the decision of the general assembly was final.

In one particular the Carthaginian government was more constitutional than that of Rome, or most of the Grecian republics; it kept distinct the civil and military power: the dignity of chief magistrate was not united to that of general without an express decree for the purpose. When a king was sent to conduct a war, his military powers expired at the close of the campaign, and previously to a new one a fresh nomina

tion was necessary. There are also instances of a general being elected one of the suffétes, or kings, while he was engaged in conducting war. Other foreign expeditions were sometimes intrusted to the kings; for Hanno, who conducted an armament to establish colonies along the coast of western Africa, is expressly called king of the Carthaginians.

The religion of the Carthaginians was the same as that of their ancestors the Phoenicians, and was consequently polluted by sanguinary rites and human sacrifices. But the Carthaginians were not averse to the introduction of foreign goods; they adopted the worship of Céres from the Sicilians, and sent ambassadors to the oracle of Delphi. It does not appear that there was a distinct sacerdotal caste, or even order, in Carthage; the priestly functions were united with the magisterial.

A species of national banking was established at Carthage which was very curious. Pieces of a compound metal, the secret of whose composition was strictly preserved, in order to prevent forgery, were sewed up in leather coverings, and marked with a government seal, which declared their nominal value. This money was, of course, current only in Carthage itself. The public revenues of Carthage were derived from the tribute imposed on the dependant cities and African tribes, from the customhouse duties collected in the port, and from the Spanish mines, the richest of which were in the neighborhood of Carthago Nova, the modern city of Carthagena.

The Carthaginians, like their ancestors the Phoenicians, paid great attention to naval affairs, and long possessed maritime supremacy over the western Mediterranean. They were eminent for their skill in shipbuilding, and it was after the model of a Carthaginian galley, accidentally stranded, that the Romans built their first fleet.

The Carthaginians most commonly used trirémes, or galleys with three banks of oars, but we read of their using ships with five banks, and in one instance with seven. The rowers were composed of slaves bought by the state for this particular purpose, and as they required constant practice, formed a permanent body, which was not disbanded in time of peace. The office of admiral was rarely united to that of general, and the naval commanders, even when acting in concert with the military, received their orders direct from the senate.

Carthage supported numerous land armies; but, unlike most other ancient states, its forces were chiefly composed of mercenaries and slaves; the citizens themselves, engrossed by commercial pursuits, were unwilling to encounter the hardships and perils of a campaign. There was, however, always one Carthaginian corps, which was regarded as the pride of the army.

SECTION III.-History of Carthage from the Foundation of the City to the Commencement of the Syracusan Wars.

FROM B. C. 880 To B. c. 416.

Dr'po, after having escaped from the tyranny of her brother Pygmálion, chose for her new country the Carthaginian peninsula. She is said to have acquired by a fraudulent purchase, the ground on which the city was built; but this legend is unworthy of serious notice. At

first the Carthaginians were compelled to pay tribute to the neighboring barbarian princes; but when their riches and strength increased, they shook of this degrading yoke, and extended their dominion by the subjection of the nearest native tribes in the interior, and by new establishments along the coasts. The more ancient Phoenician colonies, such as Utica and Lep'tis, far from feeling jealous of the rising power of Carthage, joined in a federation, of which the new city was recognised as the head. The Greek settlers at Cyréne, whose state had attained great commercial prosperity, viewed the Carthaginians with more jealousy, and war soon broke out between the rival cities.

While the Persian empire was rising into importance in the east, Carthage was fast acquiring supremacy over the western world, chiefly by means of the family of Mágo-a family that held the chief power of the state for more than a century. But just as they were rising into eminence, they had to encounter a formidable enemy in the western Mediterranean, whose proved skill and courage threatened dangerous rivalry. This led to one of the first naval engagements recorded in history, and arose from the following circumstances:

After Cy'rus had overthrown Cra'sus, he intrusted the subjugation of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor to Har'pagus, one of his generals, and returned to complete the conquest of Babylónia. One of the first places against which Har'pagus directed his efforts was Phocæ'a, the most northern city of Iónia (B. c. 589). Its inhabitants were celebrated for their commercial enterprise and skill in navigation; they had frequently visited the coast of Spain, and ventured beyond the pillars of Hercules. But they had not strength to resist the myriads of Persia; and when summoned by Har'pagus, they begged for a short interval to deliberate on his proposals. During this period, they embarked their wives, children, and moveable property, on board their galleys, and abandoned the naked walls of their city to the Persians. They proceeded to the island of Cor'sica, part of which was already occupied by the Carthaginians, and prepared to establish themselves on its coasts. The Carthaginians and the Tyrrhenians, or Tuscans, dreading the rivalry of the enterprising Phocæans, entered into an alliance for their destruction, and sent a fleet of one hundred and twenty sail to drive them from Corsica. The Phocæans, with half the number of vessels, gained a brilliant victory; but, conscious that their numbers were too weak to sustain repeated attacks, they abandoned Cor'sica for the shores of Gaul, where they founded the city of Marseilles.

In the year that the Tarquins were expelled, a treaty was concluded between the republics of Rome and Carthage (B. c. 509); from the terms of which it appears that the Carthaginians were already supreme masters of the northern coast of Africa and the island of Sardinia, and that they possessed the Balearic islands, and a considerable portion of Sicily and Spain.

Ever since the seafight off Cor'sica, the Carthaginians had a jealous dread of Grecian valor and enterprise, which was naturally aggravated by the increasing wealth and power of the Greek colonies in Sicily and southern Italy. When Xerxes, therefore, was preparing to invade Hellas, they readily entered into alliance with the Persian monarch, and agreed to attack the colonies, while he waged war against