The gods do not seem to have lived always on a friendly footing with each other. It appears to me that the two following verses, R.V. iv. 30, 3, 5, though otherwise rendered by Professor Wilson (after Sayana) are to be understood of Indra fighting against the gods, and not with the gods against the Asuras: 3. Viśve chana id anā tvā devāsaḥ Indra yuyudhuḥ| yad ahā naktam ātiraḥ | 5. Yatra devān ṛighāyato viśvān ayudhyaḥ ekaḥ it | tram Indra vanun ahan | 3. "Even all the gods assailed thee Indra, when thou didst prolong (?) day and night. 5. When thou didst fight alone against all the furious gods, thou didst slay the destructive." This interpretation is favoured by the tenor of verses 4, 6, 8-11 of the same hymn.27

(5) Their powers and prerogatives.

The gods can do whatever they will; no mortal, however hostile his disposition, can thwart their designs (R.V. viii. 28, 4. Yathā vasanti devās tad id asat tad eshām nakir ā minat | arāvā chana marttyaḥ). The same is said of the Maruts viii. 20, 17; and of Indra viii. 50, 4; viii. 55, 4. It is similarly declared in iii. 56, 1, that no one, however skilful

over or giving effect to religious acts." This does not, however, appear to be the real sense, as Mahīdhara on Vaj. S. 31, 17, tells us that "there are two kinds of gods," karmadevāḥ, "work-gods," and ājānadevāḥ, "gods by birth," the first being those who had attained to the condition of deities by their eminent works, and the second those who were produced at the beginning of the creation. The second class is superior to the first, and, according to the Bṛihadaranyaka, a hundred enjoyments of the latter (the work-gods), " are only equal to one single enjoyment of the former." See all this and more declared in the Bṛihadāranyaka Upanishad, pp. 817 ff. (p. 230 f. of translation), and S'atapatha Brāhmaṇa, p. 1087. A second sense proposed for sādhyāḥ by Sāyaṇa on R.V. i. 164, 50, is that of the "deities presiding over metres," chhando 'bhimaninaḥ, who were Adityas and Angirases, and, according to a Brahmana, by worshipping Agni were exalted to heaven. Prof. Wilson remarks in his note: "It would seem that in Sayana's day the purport of the designation Sadhya had become uncertain." Mahidhara on Vāj. S. 31, 16, renders the term virāḍupādhi-sādhakāḥ, "producers of the condition of Virāj."

27 I should observe that the Brahmanas constantly speak of the gods and Asuras as being both the offspring of Prajapati: as contending together (S ́atap. Br. v. 1, 1, 1; vi. 6, 2, 11; vi. 6, 3, 2); and even as being originally equal or alike (4th vol. of this work, p. 52). And to prove that even malignant spirits may be called "gods," Prof. Roth, s.v. deva, quotes from the Taitt. Sanh. iii. 5, 4, 1, a verse to the effect: "May Agni preserve me from the gods (devāḥ), destroyers of sacrificers, stealers of sacrifices, who inhabit the earth;" and a second text from the A.V. iii, 15, 5: “Agni, do thou through the oblation repel the gods who are destroyers of happiness" (sataghnaḥ).

and wise, can impede the first and firm decrees of the gods (na tā minanti mayino na dhirāḥ vratā devānām prathama dhruvāni). They have dominion over all creatures (x. 65, 15. Devān Vasishṭho amṛitān varande ye viśvā bhuvană abhi pratasthuḥ). They are supplicated in viii. 30, 3, not to lead the worshippers far away from the paths of their ancestor Manu (mā naḥ pathaḥ pitryād mānavād adhi dūram naishṭa parāvataḥ). In one passage (R. V. x. 33, 8 f.) a grateful priest exclaims that if he were lord of the immortals and of mortals, his royal patron's life should be prolonged; but, he adds, no one, even though he attain the age of a hundred years, can live beyond the time the gods appoint; such has been the perpetual course of things (8. Yad iśīya amṛitānām uta vā martyānām | jived id maghava mama | 9. Na devānām ati vratam śatātmā chana jivati | tathā yujā vi vavṛite). In another place, x. 117, 1, an encomiast of liberality expresses his assurance that the gods had not ordained him (or others) to die of hunger, as even the full-fed are overtaken by various forms of death (Na vai u devāḥ kshudham id vadham dadur uta āśitam upa gachhanti mrityavaḥ). Another poet cries (x. 64, 2) that there is no other helper than the gods, on whom the fulfilment of all his wishes depends (na marḍitā vidyate anyaḥ ebhyo deveshu me adhi kāmāḥ ayam̃sata). They live in enjoyment in the region where Vishnu took his three strides (viii. 29, 7. Trini ekaḥ urugayo'vi chakrame yatra devāso madanti | comp. i. 154, 4). In iii. 54, 5, the rishi asks "who knows, who now can declare, what road leads to the gods? Their lower abodes are indeed perceived, but there are higher and mysterious manifestations, or regions, beyond (ko addhā veda kaḥ iha pra vochad devān achha pathyā kā sameti | dadṛiśre eshām avamā sadām̃si pareshu yā guhyeshu vrateshu 28).

On the other hand the drinker of Soma attains to the privilege of immortality and of knowing the gods (viii. 48, 3. Apāma somam amṛitāḥ abhūma aganma jyotir avidāma devān | Comp. x. 31, 3. navedaso amṛitānām abhūma |).

26 The construction and sense of the last four words is obscure. They occur again in a different connection in x. 114, 2 (where however yāḥ is feminine: tāsām ni chikyuḥ kavayo nidānam pareshu yāḥ guhyeshu vrateshu | "The wise perceive the nature of these, who [exist] in high and mysterious forms, [or realms]." The sense of enclosure or realm is assigned to the word vrata by Müller, Trans. of R.V. i. 225, who renders this last line thus: The poets discovered their (the Nirritis') origin, who are in the far hidden chambers."

The gods reward their pious worshippers and punish those who neglect their service: viii. 2, 18. Ichhanti devāḥ sunvantam na svapnāya spṛihayanti | "The gods desire a man who pours out libations: they do not love sleep."

viii. 31, 15. Makshu devavato rathaḥ śūro vā pṛitsu kāsu chit | devānām yaḥ id mano yajamānaḥ iyakshati abhid ayajvano bhuvat | 16. Na yajamāna rishyasi na sunvāna na devayo | "15. Impetuous is the chariot of the godly man, and he is a hero in every battle. The sacrificer who seeks to please the gods overcomes the man who does not sacrifice. 16. Thou dost not perish, o sacrificer, nor thou who offerest libations, nor thou, o godly man."

vii. 39, 2. Na devāsaḥ kavatnave | "The gods are not for (i.e. they are not the portion of) the illiberal (or sluggish)." Have the words na rite śrāntasya sakhyāya devāḥ, in iv. 33, 11, a similar meaning: "The gods are not friendly to him who is tired of the sacred rite"? See a collection of texts to the same effect as regards the individual deities in my article "On the relations of the priests to the other classes of society in the Vedic age," Journ. R. A. S. for 1866, pp. 286 ff.; and a selection from them in the 1st vol. of this work, 2nd ed. pp. 259 ff.

According to the Satapatha Brahmana, i. 1, 1, 7, "the gods know the intentions of a man. They are aware that he contemplates the performance of this rite, and will make his offering in the morning; and consequently they all come to his house and abide there" (Mano ha vai devāḥ manushyasya ājānanti | te enam etad vratam upayantam viduḥ prātar no yakshyate iti | te asya viśve devāḥ gṛihān āgachhanti te asya griheshu upavasanti).

I have here endeavoured to collect such characteristics and attributes as are in the Veda ascribed to the gods collectively. In the sections treating of the several deities, the qualities and functions attributed to each will be brought forward in detail.

SECTION II.

DYAUS 29 AND PRITHIVI.

I begin with Dyaus and Prithivi (Heaven and Earth), who seem to have been very ancient Aryan divinities, and are in many passages of the Rig-veda described as the parents of the other gods.

In addition to numerous detached verses in which these deities are introduced among other objects of adoration, are invited to attend religious rites, and supplicated for different blessings, there are several hymns 30 (i. 159; i. 160; i. 185; iv. 56; vi. 70; and vii. 53), which are specially devoted to their honour. As a specimen of the way in which they are addressed, I subjoin a translation (very imperfect, I fear,) of some parts of the 159th and 160th hymns of the first book:

i. 159, 1. Pra dyāvā yajnaiḥ pṛithivī ṛitāvṛidhā mahi stushe vidatheshu prachetasā | devebhir ye devaputre sudamsasā itthā dhiyā vāryāṇi prabhushataḥ | 2. Uta manye pitur adruho mano mātur mahi svatavas tad havīmabhiḥ | suretasā pitarā bhūma chakratur uru prajāyāḥ amṛitam varīmabhiḥ | “1. At the festivals [I worship] with offerings, and celebrate the praises of, Heaven and Earth, the promoters of righteousness, the great, the wise, the energetic, who, having gods for their offspring, thus lavish, with the gods, the choicest blessings, in consequence of our hymn. 2. With my invocations I adore the thought of the beneficent Father, and that mighty inherent power of the Mother. The prolific Parents have made all creatures, and through their favours (have conferred) wide immortality on their offspring."

29 The crude form of this word is Dyu. I employ the nominative Dyaus, from its closer resemblance to the Greek Zeus. The genitive is Divas.

30 See also A.V. iv. 26. Prithivī alone is celebrated in R.V. 5, 84, 1 ff. Hymn i. 185, is translated and commented on by M. Ad. Regnier in his E'tude sur l'idiome des Vedas.

i. 160, 2. Uruvyachasā mahinī asaśchatā pitā mātā cha bhuvanāni rakshataḥ.... 3. Ayam devānām apasām apastamo yo jajāna rodasi · viśva-śambhuvā | vi yo mame rajasī sukratūyayā ajarebhiḥ skambhanebhiḥ samānṛiche | 4. Te no grināne mahinī mahi śravaḥ kshattram dyāvāprithivi dhasatho mahat | yenābhi kṛishṭīs tatanāma viśvahā panāyyam ojo asme sam invatam | "2. Widely expanded, vast, unwearied, the Father and the Mother preserve all creatures. 4. He was the most skilful of the skilful gods who produced these two worlds, which are beneficent to all, who, desiring to create an excellent work, stretched out these regions and sustained them by undecaying supports. 5. When lauded, may the mighty Heaven and earth bestow on us great renown and power. May they impart to us laudable energy whereby we may always control other creatures."

In the hymns Heaven and Earth are characterized by a profusion of epithets, not only such as are suggested by their various physical characteristics, as vastness, breadth, profundity, productiveness, unchangeableness (uruvyachasā, mahinī, urvī, bahule, dureante, gabhīre, ghritavati, madhudughe, bhūriretasā, payasvatī, ajare) (i. 160, 2; i. 185, 7; iv. 56, 3; vi. 70, 1, 2); but also by such as are of a moral or spiritual nature, as innocuous or beneficent, wise, promoters of righteousness, (ṛitāvṛidhā, ṛitāvarī, prachetasā, adruhā) (i. 159, 1 f.; i. 160, iv. 56, 2; vi. 70, 6; x. 36, 2).

(1) Heaven and Earth described as the universal parents.

1;

The two (Heaven and Earth) together are styled parents, pitară (in i. 159, 2; iii. 3, 11; vii. 53, 2; x. 65, 8), or matarā (in i. 155, 3; ix. 85, 12; x. 1, 7; x. 35, 3;31 x. 64, 14), or janitri (dyāvā-pṛithivi janitri R.V. x. 110, 9). In other passages the Heaven is separately styled father, and the Earth mother (in R.V. i. 89, 4; i. 90, 7; i. 159, 2; i. 160, 2; i. 185, 11; iv. 1, 10; v. 42, 16; v. 43, 2, 15; vi. 51, 5; 32 vi. 70, 6; vi. 72, 2; viii. 92, 2; x. 54, 3; x. 88, 15 (= Vāj. Sanh. 19, 47). See also A.V. ii. 28, 4; iii.

31 Here they are supplicated to preserve the worshipper sinless. In R.V. vi. 17, 7, they are called mātarā yahvī ṛitasya, "the great parents of sacrifice."

32 The words of the original here are Dyaush pitaḥ Prithivī mātar adhrug Agne bhrātar Vasavo mṛilatā naḥ | “Father Heaven, innoxious mother Earth, brother Agni, Vasus, be gracious to us." A.V. vi. 4, 3 has Dyaushpitar yāvaya duchhunā yā.