imagination assign human forms to their gods, but also represented them in a sensible manner. Thus in R.V. ii. 33, 9, a painted image of Rudra is described: sthirebhir angaiḥ pururūpaḥ ugraḥ babhruś śukrebhiḥ pipise hiranyaiḥ | With strong limbs, many-formed, awful, brown, he is painted with shining golden colours.' R.V. i. 25, 13 (where it is said of Varuna, that, 'wearing a golden coat of mail, he veils himself in his radiance; spies sit round him '), appears also to refer to a sensible representation." . . . . "Still clearer appears the reference to representations in the form of an image in v. 52, 15: nú manvānaḥ eshām devān aścha (the editions of Professor Müller and Aufrecht both read achhā) | 'I now pray to the gods of these (Maruts).' Here it seems that the Maruts are distinguished from their gods, i.e. from their images." . . . . "Besides the common expression vapus, tanu, rūpa ['body' and 'form'], there is in the oldest language one which properly denotes an image of the gods, viz., sandṛiś." Much more is added in support of the same view. It is perhaps premature to attempt to decide on the validity of these proofs till it is seen what can be urged on the opposite side.

(4) Kings and principalities.

Kings are frequently mentioned in the hymns, i. 40, 8; i. 126, 1; iii. 43, 5; v. 37, 4; x. 33, 4, etc. In i. 85, 8, the Maruts are said to be of awful aspect, like kings (rājānāḥ iva tvesha-sandṛiśaḥ). The country occupied by the Aryas was no doubt peopled by various tribes 625 and divided into numerous principalities. In R.V. i. 126, 1, a king called Bhavya is celebrated, who dwelt on the banks of the Sindhu, or Indus (amandān stomān prabhare manīshā Sindhāv adhi kshiyato Bhavyasya | yo me sahasram amimīta savān atūrto rājā śravaḥ ichhamānaḥ). In viii. 21, 18, Chitra and other chiefs are alluded to as living near the Sarasvati (Chitraḥ id rājā rājakāḥ anyake yake Sarasvatim anu). Ten kings are alluded to as having fought against Sudās, vii. 33, 3; vii. 83, 6 ff. (see the 1st vol. of this work, pp. 319, 323 f.). Numerous names of kings occur in the Rig-veda. The meetings, whether friendly or hostile, of princes are alluded to, x. 97, 6 (rājānaḥ samitav iva). In vii. 18, 2, Indra is represented as living in the

625 See Roth, Zur Litteratur und Geschichte des Weda, pp. 131 ff.

626

society of his wives like a king, or dwelling amid lights, as a king among his wives, as Sayana explains: (rājeva hi janibhiḥ ksheshi eva ava dyubhiḥ), which appears to indicate the existence of royal polygamy. In x. 40, 3, the Aśvins are said to come to the libations like two kings' sons (rājaputreva savanā 'va gachhataḥ). When Mitra and Varuna are represented in ii. 41, 5; v. 62, 6, and vii. 88, 5 (see above, p. 60), as occupying a great palace with a thousand pillars and a thousand gates, we may suppose that this is but an exaggerated description of a royal residence, such as the poets had seen." And in the same way we may imagine that the description of Varuna in i. 25, 10, 13 (above, p. 59), as sitting in his house, arrayed in golden mail or raiment, surrounded by his messengers and exercising sovereignty, was suggested by the ceremonial of a contemporary Rājā's court. It appears from R.V. iv. 50, 8 (quoted in the 1st vol. of this work, p. 247), that it was regarded as eminently beneficial for a king to entertain a family priest: and in point of fact we find that the liberality of different princes to the rishis or priests by whom they were attended is celebrated in numerous passages (see the 1st vol. of this work, p. 259, and my article "On the relations of the priests to the other classes of Indian society in the Vedic age," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, for 1866, pp. 272 ff., where the names of numerous royal patrons are specified). The amount and variety of the presents lavished by these kings upon their spiritual advisers, consisting of cows, sometimes amounting to thousands (v. 30, 12 ff.), horses, chariots, lumps of gold (vi. 47, 23), dresses (daśāsvān dasa kośān daśa vastrā 'dhibhojanā | daśo hiranyapinḍān Divodāsād asānisham | daśa rathān prashṭimataḥ śatam gāḥ atharvabhyaḥ Asvathaḥ Pāyave 'dadāt), and elegantly-adorned female slaves (viii. 46, 33, adha sya yoshanā mahi pratichi Vaśam Aśvyam | adhirukmā vi nīyate), even although we should suppose,-as we probably must,-that there is a great amount of exaggeration in the passages referred to, viz., i. 126, 1 ff.; v. 27, 2; v. 30, 12 ff.; v. 33, 8 ff.; v. 61, 10; vi. 27, 8; vi. 47, 22 ff.; vi. 63, 9 f.; vii. 18, 22 ff.; viii. 3, 21 ff.; viii. 4, 19 ff.; viii. 5, 37 ff.; viii. 6, 46 ff.; viii. 19, 36 f.; viii. 21, 17 f.; viii. 24, 29 f.; viii. 46, 21 ff.; viii. 54, 10 ff.; viii. 57, 14; x. 33, 4 ff.; x.

626 A.V. iii. 12, and ix. 3 contain prayers for the stability of a house at the time of its construction.

62, 6 ff.; x. 93, 14 f., is still was possessed by these princes. is even said to have given to the rishi ten kings, brilliant as gold, viii. 5, 38 (yo me hiranya-sandṛiśo daśa rājno amam̃hata).

proof that very considerable wealth One chieftain, Kaśu, son of Chedi,

Towards the close of the Rig-veda two hymns occur (x. 173 and 174) in which blessings are invoked on a king. I shall quote the first, x. 173:1. A tvā 'hārsham antar edhi dhruvas tishṭhāvichachaliḥ | visas tra sarvāḥ vānchantu mā tvad rāshṭram adhi bhraśat | 2. Ihaivaidhi māpa chyoshṭhāḥ parvataḥ ivāchāchaliḥ | Indraḥ iveha dhruvas tishtha ika rāshṭram u dhāraya | 3. Imam Indro adidharad dhruvam dhruvena havisha | tasmai Somo adhi bravat tasmai u Brahmanaspatiḥ | 4. Dhruvā dyaur dhruvā pṛithivī dhruvāsaḥ parvatāḥ ime | dhruvam viśvam idam̃ jagad dhruvo rājā viśām ayam | 5. Dhruvam te rājā Varuno dhruvam devo Brihaspatiḥ | dhruvam te Indraś cha Agniś cha rāshṭram dhārayatām dhruvam | 6. Dhruvam dhruvena havishā abhi Somam mṛiśāmasi | atho te Indraḥ kevalir viso balihṛitas karat |

"I have brought thee forward; remain in the midst; continue firm and immovable; may all thy subjects desire thee! may thy dominion not fall away from thee! 2. Remain here; do not fall; continue immovable as a mountain; abide here as firm as Indra; support here the realm. 3. Indra with a firm oblation has held him firm; may Soma, may Brahmanaspati, take his part. 4. Firm is the sky, firm the earth, firm these hills, firm is the whole world, and this prince is a firmly-established king over his subjects. 5. May king Varuna, may the divine Brihaspati, may Indra and Agni firmly maintain thy rule! 6. We urge the firm Soma with a firm oblation. And now may Indra make thy subjects devoted to thee alone, and bringers of tribute."

Mention is also made of rulers or governors under the title of purpati, lord of a city or fortified place (i. 173, 10), and grāmaṇī ruler of a village, or tribe, or band of men. The latter word occurs in x. 62, 11: sahasradāḥ grāmaṇīr ma rishan manuḥ sūryeṇāsya yatamānā etu dakshina "Let not this man (Savarni), the leader of the people, suffer calamity let his largess extend to the sun;" 627 and in x. 107, 5, dakshiṇāvān grāmaṇīr agram eti | "The bestower of largesses walks in the front as a leader" (see above, p. 434).

627 See the context in my paper on the priests in the Vedic age, Jour. R.A.S. for 1866, p. 276.

(5) Different ranks in society,-rich and poor.

As may be concluded from the facts already stated, we find in the hymns a distinct reference to rich and poor as existing in the community. See R.V. x. 117, quoted above in page 431, where the existence of both classes is distinctly recognized, and liberality on the part of the wealthy is recommended. In x. 107, 10, the house of the donor of largesses is compared to a lotus pond, and is said to be embellished like a palace of the gods (above, p. 434, and compare x. 135, 7). In viii. 4, 9, the man who is a friend of Indra is said to have horses, chariots, cows; to be handsome, to enjoy vigorous vitality, and to come resplendent into the assembly (aśvi rathi surūpaḥ id gomān id Indra te sakhā | śvātrabhājā vayasā sachate sadā chandro yāti sabhām upa).

(6) Domestic relations and life and morals.

There are in the hymns distinct traces of the existence of polygamy, though it was no doubt the exception, and monogamy the rule. In some places the husband appears to be described as having only one wife, if we may judge from the fact that the latter is mentioned in the singular. Thus in i. 124, 7, Ushas is said to display her form, as if smiling, as a loving and well-dressed wife does to her husband (jāyā iva patye usati suvāsāḥ Ushāḥ hasrā iva ni rinite apsaḥ; compare iv. 3, 2, and x. 71, 4). And in i. 105, 2, it is said ā jāyā yuvate patim | "The wife embraces her husband." In other places a plurality of wives is more or less distinctly intimated. Thus in i. 62, 11: patim na patnir uśatīr uśantam spṛiśanti tvā savasāvan manīshāḥ|"Our hymns touch thee, o strong god, as loving wives a loving husband;" i. 71, 1: upa pra jinvann uśatīr uśantam patim na nityam janayaḥ sanīṭāḥ | svasāraḥ | "The loving sisters [i.e. fingers] have stirred up the loving [Agni], as wives dwelling together their own husbands;' i. 105, 8 (=x. 33, 2): sam mă tapanti abhitaḥ sapatnīr iva parśavaḥ | "My ribs" (or, according to the Nirukta and Sāyana, the sides of the well) "press painfully on me all around, like rival wives (literally,

19628

629 I should observe that both Sayana and Professor Benfey construe the epithet sanītāḥ "dwelling together, or in one house" with svasāraḥ “the sisters," and not with janayaḥ "wives."

co-wives);" i. 186, 7: tam im giro janayo na patnīḥ surabhishṭamam narām nasanta | "Hymns haste to him the most pleasing of heroes, as women who are wives;" vii. 26, 3: janīr iva patir ekaḥ samāno ni mamrije puraḥ Indraḥ su sarvāḥ | “Indra took to him all the cities, as (one) common husband his wives;" x. 43, 1: pari shvajante janayo yatha patim "[The hymns] embrace [Indra] as wives a husband." The Satap. Br. ix 1, 4, 6, distinctly avows the principle of polygamy, and states the origin of the practice after its own fashion: Pumse pūrvasmai juhoti atha strībhyaḥ | pumāñsam tad-vīryena atyādadhāti | ekasmai iva pumse juhoti bahvībhyaḥ iva strībhyaḥ | tasmād apy ekasya pumso bahvyo jāyāḥ bhavanti | ubhābhyām vashaṭkārena cha svāhākarena cha pumse juhoti svāhākārena eva strībhyaḥ | pumāñsam eva tad-vīryena atyādadhāti | "He sacrifices to the man first, then to the women. He exalts the man in consequence of his vigour. He sacrifices to the man as to one, and to the women as to many. Hence also one man has many wives. He sacrifices to the man both with the vashaṭkāra and the svahakāra, to the women with the latter alone. He exalts the man in consequence of his vigour." It seems to have been considered a misfortune for a woman to be left an old maid in her father's house (see the case of Ghoshā, above, p. 247). It would lead me too far to attempt to give any description of the marriage ceremonial, for which I must refer the reader to Weber's Indische Studien, v. 177 ff. (see also R.V. x. 109). Women appear to have been permitted to marry a second time, according to A.V. ix. 5, 27 f., quoted above, in the section on Yama, p. 306 (see also the 1st vol. of this work, pp. 281 ff.). In i. 124, 7, Ushas is said to show herself, as a female, without a brother (her natural protector), is said to show herself to a man (abhrāteva puñse eti pratichi). Wicked liars are compared, in iv. 5, 5, to women without brothers, and evil-disposed wives hostile to their husbands (abhrataro na yoshano vyantaḥ patiripo na janayo durevāḥ | pāpāsaḥ santaḥ anṛitāḥ asatyāḥ idam padam ajanata gabhiram).

The eleventh and twelfth verses of R.V. x. 27, are as follows::yasyānakshā duhitā jātu āsa kas tām vidvān abhimanyeta andhām | kataro menim prati tam muchāte yaḥ im̃ vahāte yaḥ im̃ vā vareyāt | 12. kiyati yoshā maryato vadhuyoḥ pariprītā panyasā vāryena | bhadrā vadhur bhavati yat supeśāḥ svayam să mitram vanute jane chit | 11. "Who knowingly will desire the blind daughter of any man who has one?