The

castes, high and low. The letters of the Jesuits form for a long period the chief materials for the social history of the southern Districts. They had also numerous although less important missions in the north of India. During the 17th and 18th centuries, religious troubles and difficulties as to caste observances arose in Southern India through the action of the missionaries, which were misrepresented in Europe. The Portuguese Government claimed to appoint the Archbishop of Goa; and the Dutch adventurers persecuted the Catholics along the coast. The literary activity of the missionaries was, however, very great. Their early efforts in the cause of education, and in printing books in the various languages, are remarkable. De Nobili and Beschi have been named. Fathers Arnauld and Calmette should not be forgotten.

The work of the missions was brought to a termination by political events in Europe. In 1759, Portugal broke up the Jesuits sup- Society of Jesus within its dominions, seized its property, pressed, 1759-73. France did the same in and imprisoned its members. 1764; and to prevent greater evils, Clement XIV. in 1773 was forced to suppress the whole Society. The French Revolution followed. These events deprived the Indian Jesuit missions alike of priests and of resources, and for a long time they languished, served in the south only by a few priests from Goa and Pondicherri. That dismal period, however, presents some illustrious names; among them two well-known writers, the Abbé Dubois of Mysore, and the Carmelite Fra Paolino de San Bartholomeo (in India 1774-90). In the absence of priests to sustain the courage of the Christians, every occasional or local persecution told. Tipú, about 1784, forcibly circumcised about 30,000 Catholics of Kanara, and deported them to the country above the Ghats. Many native Christians lived and died without ever seeing a priest; they baptized their own children, taught them the prayers, and kept up daily worship in their churches. In 1814, the Society of Jesus was re-established; and under Gregory Jesuits reestablished, XVI. (1831-46), its missions began a new life, and have since 1814. made great progress. Their prosperity is, however, much hampered by the action taken in Europe against the religious orders. The claims of Portugal to appoint the Archbishop of Goa, and through him to regulate the clerical patronage, as opposed to the claims of the Pope, have occasioned schisms in the past, and still give rise to discord. The native Roman Catholics, as already stated, number about 1 million.

The

The Roman Catholic missions are maintained by many of the

tion of the

missions.

Goa.

European nations, and are nearly equally divided between the Organizasecular and regular clergy. Almost every mission contains a Roman mixture of races among its priests; even Holland, Spain, and Catholic Germany being represented. Although all are directed by Europeans, at least seven-eighths of the Roman priests are natives. It is also worthy of remark, that in the list of bishops during the last 300 years the names of several natives are found, some of them Bráhmans. The Roman Catholic missions are presided over by bishops (vicars and prefects apostolic), the delegates of the Pope, who governs the missions himself, without the intervention of the hierarchy. Such is usually the case in heathen countries. Side by side with the sixteen vicars-apostolic, who are bishops in partibus infidelium, the Archbishop of Goa has an extraordinary jurisdiction over Archa certain number of Catholics outside his diocese, and bishop of scattered over all India, but chiefly found in the south. The jurisdiction of the prefect-apostolic of Pondicherri is confined to the French possessions, and in Pondicherri itself he has. jurisdiction only over 'those who wear hats.' As the ecclesiastical and civil divisions of India do not correspond, it is difficult to compare mission with official statistics. The Catholics in French territory number 33,544, and in Portuguese Distributerritory, 245,318. This leaves 1,038,940 for British India tion of and the Native States. They are most numerous in the Catholics. Native States of Travancore and Cochin (comprised in the vicariates of Verapoly and Quilon). The archdiocese of Goa with 660 priests, nearly all natives, in a very small territory containing over 240,000 Catholics, is a witness to the sternly proselytizing influence of the Portuguese. Verapoly, the smallest The Verapoly of the Roman Catholic vicariates, contains the largest number vicariate of priests and Catholics. These are chiefly the descendants (Travanof the Nestorians converted to Rome in the 16th century, and core). are divided into two classes-of the Syrian rite, 141,386, and of the Latin rite, 80,600. They are directed by 14 European Carmelite priests, and by 375 native priests, 39 of the Latin rite, and 336 of the Syrian rite. The Pondicherri and Madura vicariates represent parts of the famous Jesuit missions of Madura and of the Karnatic. The statistics of Protestant and Catholic Christians in the Madras Presidency have already been given (p. 371). In Bombay city, and along the fertile maritime strip or Konkan between the Western Ghats and the sea, the Roman Catholics form an important section of the native population.

The Catholics in India seem steadily to increase; and as in

Roman

Catholic

resources.

former times, the increase is chiefly in the south, especially in. the missions of Pondicherri and Madura. The Pondicherri Mission has performed over 50,000 adult baptisms in the last cherri Mis- three years.

Pondi

sion.

In the Madura vicariate, the increase is chiefly in Tinnevelli and Rámnád. The converts are mostly agriculturists, but are by no means confined to the low castes. The Catholic principal Catholic educational establishments in India are the colleges. colleges of the Jesuits at Calcutta, Bombay, and Negapatam. Another Jesuit college has lately been opened at Mangalore in South Kanara, a District in which there are over 3000 Catholic Bráhmans. England, being a Protestant country, supplies few priests, and hence Catholic missions have much difficulty in maintaining colleges and schools where English is the vehicle of higher education. The statistics of such institutions are incomplete, owing to want of information about certain parts of the Goa jurisdiction. But the number of schools actually returned in 1880, including Goa, was 1514, with 51,610 pupils.

First Protestant missions, 1705.

The Roman Catholics work in India with slender pecuniary resources. They derive their main support from two great Catholic organizations, the Association for the Propagation of the Faith, and the Society of the Holy Childhood. The former contributes £24,464 yearly to Indian missions, and the latter £12,300, making a total of £36,764. This is exclusive of the expenditure within the Archbishopric of Goa; but it represents the European contributions to the sixteen vicariates under the Pope. It maintains a staff of 16 bishops and 1118 priests, teaching 1236 schools, with 40,907 pupils, and giving religious instruction to 1,002,379 native Christians. The Roman Catholic priests deny themselves the comforts considered necessaries for Europeans in India. In many Districts, they live the frugal and abstemious life of the natives, and their influence reaches deep into the social life of the communities among whom they dwell.

The first Protestant missionaries in India were Lutherans, Ziegenbalg and Plutschau, who in 1705 began work under the patronage of the King of Denmark at the Danish settlement of Tranquebar. Ziegenbalg and many of the early Lutheran missionaries were men of great ability; and, besides their translations of the Scriptures, some of their writings still hold a high place in missionary literature. Ziegenbalg began the tion of the translation of the Bible into Tamil, and his successor Schultze Bible, 1725. completed it in 1725. This was the first Protestant transla

Transla

tion of the Scriptures in India. Schultze also translated the whole Bible into Hindustání. Ziegenbalg died in 1719, leaving 355 converts. In spite of the patronage of the Kings of Denmark and England, and of the liberal assistance of friends in Europe, the Lutheran mission made at first but slow progress, and was much hindered and opposed by the local Danish authorities. Gradually it extended itself into Madras, Cuddalore, and Tanjore; schools were set up, and conversion and education went hand in hand.

mission

Calcutta,

In 1750, arrived the pious Schwartz, whose name is bound Schwartz in Tanup with the history of Tanjore and adjacent Districts until his jore, death in 1798. He was the founder of the famous Tinne- 1750-98. velli missions. Next to the Lutherans come the Baptists of Serampur Serampur, with the honoured names of Carey, Marshman, aries. and Ward. In the 18th century, the English East India Company did not discourage the labours of Protestant mis- Kiersionaries. It had allowed Kiernander, who was sent by the nander in Danish mission, to establish himself at Calcutta in 1758; 1758. subsequently, it put every obstacle in the way of missionaries, and deported them back to England on their landing. Carey Carey, arrived in 1793. In 1799, to avoid the opposition of the English 1793. East India Company, he established himself with four other missionaries at Serampore (15 miles from Calcutta), at that time, like Tranquebar, a Danish possession. Then began that wonderful literary activity which has rendered illustrious the group of 'Serampore missionaries.' In ten years, the Bible, or parts 31 translaof it, was translated, and printed in 31 languages; and by 1816, Bible. the missionaries had about 700 converts. The London Missionary Society (established 1795) entered the field in 1798, and its missions have gradually grown into importance.

tions of the

tion with

drawn,

The opposition of the Company continued till 1813, when Opposiit was removed by the new charter. The same document provided for the establishment of the bishopric of Calcutta, 1813. and 3 archdeaconries, one for each Presidency. Up to this period the Established Church of England had attempted no direct missionary work, although some of the East India Company's chaplains had been men of zeal, like the ardent Henry Martyn (1806-11). The first Bishop of Calcutta (Middleton) Bishopric of Calarrived in 1814. From this time the Church of England cutta, has kept up a missionary connection with India, chiefly 1814. by means of its two great societies-the Church Missionary Society, which sent out its first representative in 1814, and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, which did so in 1 See article TINNEVELLI, Imperial Gazetteer, vol. ix.

Indian
Sees.

Presby

terian missions,

Other

1826.

Their most successful missions are in Southern India, where they have gathered in the seed sown by the Lutheran missions. The second Bishop of Calcutta was the well-known Heber (1823-26). In 1835, under a new charter of the East India Company, the see of Madras was established, and in 1837, that of Bombay. In 1877, owing to the extension of mission work in Tinnevelli, two missionaries were appointed bishops, as assistants to the Bishop of Madras; the dioceses of Lahore and Rangoon were separated from Calcutta, and bishops appointed. The missionary bishopric of Travancore and Cochin was established in 1879. It has no connection with Government, nor have the assistant bishops in Madras.

The first missionary of the Church of Scotland was Dr. Alexander Duff (1830-63), to whom the use of English as 1830-63. the means of higher education in India is mainly due. Missionaries of numerous other Protestant societies (European missions. and American) have since entered India, and established numbers of churches and schools. They have furnished memorable names to the roll of Indian educators, such as Judson (Baptist) in Burma, 1813-50, and John Wilson (Presbyterian) of Bombay, 1843-75.

Statistics of Protestant

1856 to 1878.

The progress of the several Protestant missions in India may be thus stated:-In 1830, there were 9 societies at missions. work, and about 27,000 native Protestants in all India, Ceylon, and Burma. By 1870, there were no less than 35 societies at work; and in 1871, there were 318,363 converts (including Ceylon, etc., as above). In 1852, there were 459 Protestant missionaries, and in 1872, there were 606. Progress, Between 1856 and 1878, the converts made by the Baptist Societies of England and America, in India, Ceylon, and Burma, have increased from about 30,000 to between 80,000 and 90,000. Those of the Basle missions of Germany have multiplied from 1060 to upwards of 6000; those of the Wesleyan Methodist missions of England and America, from 7500 to 12,000; those of the American Board, from 3302 to about 12,000; those of the Presbyterian missions of Scotland, England, Ireland, and America, connected with 10 societies, from 821 to 10,000; those of the missions of the London Missionary Society, from 20,077 to 48,000; and those of the Church Missionary Society and of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, from 61,442 to upwards of 164,000.1

1 The Rev. M. A. Sherring, in the Chronicle of the London Missionary Society, August 1879. I am indebted for the materials regarding Christian