và,

ἕως οὗ, ἕως ὅτου, until.
μέχρις οὗ, ἄχρις οὗ, until.
ápoù, since.
ἐὰν, ἂν, εἰ, if.

ἂν, πότερον, whether.
OT, that (with indic.).
và, that (with subj.).
apa, so, then.

éπoμévos, accordingly.
BOTE, So that.

ὥστε νὰ, so as to.
dnλaon, that is to say.
TOUTÉσTI, that is.
ἤτοι, ἤγουν, that is.
ἐπειδὴ, since.

Sióri, because.

πρὶν, πρὶν ἢ, πρὶν νὰ, before (fol. ὡς ἐὰν, ὡσὰν, σὰν, ὡσεί, as if. lowed by subjunctive).

the

PREPOSITIONS.

In the vernacular all prepositions, in as far as they are used at all, may be construed with the accusative case; but educated people, following (partly) classical usage, employ them as follows:

With the Objective (Accusative) alone.

eis, 'in,' 'into,''at.' uè, 'with.'

åvá, ‘over,' 'up,' 'in,'' by; as

åvà σepàv, 'in a series.' Xwpis, 'without.'

With Genitive and Accusative.

Kaтà, Gen., ‘against,' e. g. karà Toû ȧvepúπov, 'against the man.' Acc., according to,' 'by,' 'in,' e. g. Karà μépos, 'in part.' μετά, Gen., with, e. g. μετὰ πολλῶν ἀνθρώπων, with many

men.'

Acc., after,' e. g. μeтà πоλλàs ημépas, after many days.' imèp, Gen., 'for the sake of,' e. g. vπèρ éμoû, ' on my behalf.' Acc., 'over,' e. g. vπèρ тην пóλw, over the town.'

πò, Gen., 'by,' e. g. ir' èμoû, 'by me.'

Acc., 'under,' e. g. vπ' èμè,' under me.'

ȧrò, 'from,' Acc. or Gen. without distinction of meaning, but colloquially with former.

Sià, Gen., 'with,' 'by means of,' e. g. Sià TOÚTOV, 'by this means.'

Acc., on account of,' 'for,' e. g. Sià TOUTO, 'on this account.'

Tepì, Gen., 'about,'' concerning,' e. g. πepì èμoû óμiλovσiv, ‘they are talking about me.'

Acc., 'round,' 'near,' e. g. πepì èμè iσravтal, 'they are standing round me.'

With Genitive, Dative, and Accusative.

éri, Gen., 'in the time of,' 'upon,' 'on,' e. g. è' èuoû, 'in my time,' ènì Tя трaréns, 'on the table.'

Acc., on to,' 'up to,' e. g. ènì rò Teixos λbe, he came up

to the wall.’

éri, Dat., on account of,' 'over,' e. g. ènì rŷ SvorUxía μov odúpoμa, 'I wail over,' or 'bewail my misfortune.'

πpòs, Gen., for the sake of,' e. g. πрòs beοû! Acc., 'to,' 'towards,' e. g. pòs avròv

him.'

'for God's sake!'

lov, 'I came to

Dat., in addition to,'' besides,' e. g. Tρòs TоÚTOɩs, more

than this.

wapà, Gen., 'from (the part of),' e. g. πарà тоû vñоνруoû, ‘from

the minister.'

Dat., 'with,' 'among,' e. g. Tapà roîs "Ayyλois, ‘among
Englishmen.'

Acc., 'along,' 'by the side of,' 'all but,'' short of,' e. g. παρὰ τὸν ποταμόν, alongside the river ; τρεῖς παρὰ τέταρτον, three all but a quarter, i. e. 2.45 ; παρ' ὀλίγον ἐφονεύθη, he was all but killed.

Syntax,

The syntax of Modern Greek is on the whole so like the English that a few remarks will suffice,

ON CONCORD.

With regard to number the rules are the same as in English. With regard to person, the first person takes precedence of the second, and the second of the third, where there is more than one subject of the sentence: ἐγὼ καὶ σὺ ἤλθομεν μαζύ, ' you and I came together; σὺ καὶ αὐτὸς ἤλθετε μαζύ, ‘you and he came together.' With regard to gender the masculine takes precedence of other genders in the case of animate, and the neuter in case of inanimate subjects, e. g. ὁ πατὴρ καὶ ἡ μήτηρ του φαίνονται νέοι, 4 his father and mother seem young; οἱ κῆποι, αἱ κοιλάδες καὶ Tà dáon eive tò čap xλoepá, 'the gardens, the valleys, and the woods are green in springtime.'

THE ARTICLE.

The definite article is commonly used with proper names, but frequently left out after prepositions before names of places and countries, as ἡ Ἑλλὰς εἶνε ἐλευθέρα, Greece is free, but πηγαίνω eis 'Eλláda, 'I go to Greece.' It is also used where we should omit it, with all abstract nouns, as ǹ åλýcia, 'Truth,' ǹ þúσis, 'Nature;' not, however, with prepositions or their equivalent case-endings, e. g. þúơei, karà þúow. It is commonly omitted where we should use it, before a substantive which is a predicate, e. g. ἡ Ἑλλὰς εἶνε πατρὶς τῶν Ἑλλήνων, • Greece is the country of the Greeks.' In other similar cases, however, the usage of the two languages coincides, e. g. ἡ νὺξ ἡμέρα ἔγεινε οι ἐγένετο, ' the night became day.'

6

By means of the article, as in English, adverbs can be used as adjectives, as oi tóte åv0pwπo, 'the men of that time.' Cf. "the above words."

The article is often used alone, some substantive being understood, as τὸ κατ' ἐμέ, ' as regards me ; τὰ τοῦ κόσμου, “the affairs of the world;' rv onμepov (μépav), ' the present (day).'

Infinitives with the article (also the subjunctive with và) are used as substantives not subject to inflexion, e. g. Tò ypáper or Tò và ypáþwμev, 'to write,' 'writing,' genitive roû ypáþew, K.T.λ.

If it is desired to place the adjective after the substantive, the article must be repeated, e. g. ὁ ἄνθρωπος ὁ καλὸς oι ὁ καλὸς ἄνθρωπος, the good man, not ὁ ἄνθρωπος καλός or καλὸς ὁ av0ρwños, either of which would mean 'the man is good.

The article admits of almost any number of words being inserted between it and the substantive, e. g. τὰ κομισθέντα ἐκ τοῦ ζαχαροπλαστείου ἀφθόνως γλυκίσματα, ' the sweetmeats plentifully brought from the confectioner's.' In this respect the construction of Modern Greek closely resembles German.

The article is invariably used with the possessive pronouns, except the substantive is either a predicate, or so indefinite that in English it would require the indefinite article, e. g. ò idɩkós

μου φίλος οι ὁ φίλος μου, ' my friend, but αὐτὸς εἶνε φίλος μου, 'he is my friend,' píλos pov rò eine, a friend of mine said it.'

THE CASES.

THE ACCUSATIVE.

The use of this case is somewhat more extensive than in English. Many verbs which in English would require a preposition (especially intransitives and passives) are in Greek construed with an accusative, e. g. évтpérоμaι éμavтóv, 'I am ashamed of myself,' èπiтрéжоμαι то прâуμа, 'I am entrusted (with) the matter.'

The accusative is also used to mark time both at which and during which, though for the former the genitive and dative are also employed, e. g. τὴν νύκτα and νυκτός, by night, τὸ θέρος, ‘in summer,' ἔζησεν ἐκατὸν ἔτη, he lived a hundred years, τὴν (also τῇ ἐπαύριον, ' on the following day (ἡμέραν -α). The double accusative is as common as in English, as oâs

Snow you, 'I ask you (your) pardon.'

The predicative accusative is idiomatic, as ἔλαβε τοῦτο δῶρον, 'he got this as a gift' (also Swpeáv). N.B.-' He got this gift' would be ἔλαβε τοῦτο τὸ δῶρον, as explained above.

Another use of the accusative is what is called in ancient Greek Grammars par excellence the Greek accusative, or accusative of respect. It is quite common in colloquial Modern Greek, e. g. πabe тà veûpá τηs,' she suffered (in) her nerves.'

THE GENITIVE.

The general use of this case is so exactly like the English possessive or its equivalent, objective + 'of,' that we need only remark on its employment with comparatives, e. g. μeyaλýtepos μov (for or Tapà èyú), 'greater than I.' Cf. Latin ablative and Semitic min, 'from.'

In a few cases, "from," rather than "of," would be the natural preposition in English. Hapà, followed by the nomina