He combined

stances of that extraordinary race. the science of law with the history of political society. Convinced that the general principles of human nature are every where the same, he searched for new lights among the subjects of every government, and the inhabitants of every climate; and while he thus opened inexhaustible and unthoughtof resources to the student of jurisprudence, he indirectly marked out to the legislator the extent and limits of his power, and recalled the attention of the philosopher from abstract and useless theories, to the only authentic monuments of the history of mankind."*

SECTION IX.

ON THE METAPHYSICAL WRITERS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

386. It was scarcely possible that the profound researches of Bacon into the phænomena of the human mind, and the ingenious speculations of Des Cartes, should not inspire many of their contemporaries and successors with a desire to prosecute the same train of investigations. Many there were at that period, who, though characterized by a great diversity of talent, and attached to different systems, pursued with ardour this branch of intellectual science. Some of these belonged to the sceptic, or

* Stewart's Diss. ut sup. pp. 144, 145.

Others

rather the infidel school of metaphysicians, at the head of whom were Hobbes and Gassendi. were amongst the ablest and most zealous advocates of revealed truth; such as Pascal, Barrow, Cudworth, and Clarke, with many others of scarcely inferior name, who brought their commanding talents, and all the energies of their powerful minds, to bear with effect on the strong holds of infidelity and scepticism; and a few may be regarded as of a neutral class, immersed in metaphysical abstractions, and intent alone upon the establishment of some favourite hypothesis, in connexion with the philosophy of mind.

387. In attempting a rapid sketch of the principal metaphysicians of the seventeenth century, (exclusive of Bacon and Des Cartes, who have been already noticed, and Locke and Leibnitz, who will be separately considered hereafter,) we shall commence with those of the infidel school.

(1.) The founder of this school was HOBBES, the well-known author of "Leviathan," and many other tracts on subjects connected with political and moral science-a man of original genius and extraordinary vigour of mind, an acute and powerful reasoner, and a most profound metaphysician: but, unhappily, these qualities served only to render him more injurious to society, by the influence of his opinions and writings. The work in which his metaphysical system is most fully developed, is, his "Treatise on Human Nature," which is generally acknowledged to be the ablest production of his pen, though his "Leviathan" may have been more popular. In this

In

and other philosophical tracts, he strenuously opposes the Cartesian doctrine of ideas, and maintains that all our knowledge is to be attributed to sensation alone; thus excluding mind from the universe, and reducing the human understanding to a refined species of material mechanism. To this philosopher may also be traced that scheme of fatalism, which, in modern times, has been disguised under the specious name of philosophical necessity, on which subject Hobbes carried on a controversy with some of the most powerful reasoners of his age. the opinion of Professor Stewart, both Locke and Hume have been greatly indebted to the metaphysical speculations of Hobbes; the former, for some of his most valuable observations on the origin and association of ideas; the latter, for his disquisitions on the relation between cause and effect, as well as his views of philosophical necessity. Pernicious as were the opinions and writings of the philosopher of Malmsbury, when first promulgated, they obtained many admirers; and their influence is felt, especially on the continent of Europe, to the present day.

(2.) GASSENDI has been already mentioned in connexion with physical science ($279.); he is now to be regarded as an intellectual philosopher, in which department his talents were principally employed. His metaphysical notions accorded in almost every respect with those of Hobbes; especially with reference to the origin of ideas; for it is laid down by him as a fundamental principle on this subject, "that there is not a single object of the under

standing, which may not be ultimately analyzed into sensible images." On this ground, he was one of the first and most determined opponents of the intellectual philosophy of Des Cartes, who had maintained a contrary hypothesis. Gassendi was a great admirer of the writings of Lord Bacon, from which he is said to have imbibed a taste for the Epicurean philosophy, though it is not easy to imagine what part of those writings could have produced such a result. The works of Gassendi were collected, after his death, into six folio volumes; three of which are on metaphysical subjects; the fourth, on astronomy; the fifth contains biographical memoirs of celebrated mathematicians; and the last, his literary correspondence.

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(3.) SPINOZA must unquestionably be referred to the same class of infidel philosophers. He was by birth a Jew, but ultimately expelled from that communion on account of his reputed atheism. In early life, he was a zealous Cartesian; and one of his first literary productions was entitled, a Geometrical Demonstration of the Principles of the Cartesian Philosophy." But at a more advanced period he withdrew his attention, in a great measure, from mathematical and physical science, (in both which his attainments were of no ordinary kind,) to indulge in daring speculations on matter and spirit on the universe and its authorspeculations by which he was betrayed into the grossest errors and absurdities. A crude hypothesis, (for it scarcely deserves to be designated a system,) characterized alike by its impiety and

absurdity, which still continues to bear the name of its inventor, was propagated by this theorist, and obtained many followers. It was a species of Pantheism in words, but in reality, latent atheism. It chiefly consisted in representing the Deity and the material universe as the same thing,--and all events, physical and moral, good and evil, as necessarily resulting from the same all-pervading cause.

The

ethics of Spinoza were less objectionable than his metaphysical creed; but, as founded on false principles, however specious their form, they could not fail to be pernicious and dangerous. The principal works of Spinoza, in which his metaphysical tenets are developed, are entitled, "Tractatus Theologico Politicus," and "Etheca Geometrica Demonstrata ;" the latter of which was written in advanced life, and first published after his death.

(4.) The three above-mentioned metaphysical writers may be contemplated as founders of new sects in philosophy. Many might be added, belonging to the sceptic, if not the avowedly infidel school of mental philosophers, who flourished during the period under review. It will however suffice to mention, and that in the most cursory manner, three who are distinguished from the rest, either by the celebrity of their writings, or the extent of their erudition. Montaigne, whose " Essays" are chiefly valuable, as a lively practical exhibition of the philosophy of mind--a "work,” says Stewart, "unique in its kind, valuable in an eminent degree as an authentic record of many interesting facts relative to human nature; but more valuable by far, as

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