time it forms also a part of the general vortex of the solar system. The satellites of the planets have also their lesser and interior vortices, which revolve round their primaries, together with the satellites themselves, in the same direction, and with greater or less velocities, according to their distances from the sun. With these exterior and interior vortices, the whole material system was imagined to be so completely filled, that no possibility existed of a vacuum; since every particle in motion must occupy the place which another previously held, and thus move the entire system, as a drop of water, poured into a vessel, puts in motion the whole mass.-Such, according to the Cartesians, was the material universe; a space filled completely with indefinitely small corpuscles, all of which are in perpetual motion, and of grosser parts or masses of congregated particles, which compose the earth and planets. Upon this imaginative theory, Des Cartes has attempted, in his "Principia Philosophiæ," to explain all the ordinary and extraordinary phænomena of nature.

(3.) The more interesting and important division of the Cartesian philosophy relates to the operations of mind, as distinguished from matter. To the honour of this great philosopher it is stated, that he was the first of all the mental philosophers, who clearly and distinctly pointed out the manner in which the understanding acts on itself, and acquires knowledge, by reflecting on its own internal phænomena. "Des Cartes," says Professor Stewart, "was, I think, the first who clearly saw that our idea of

mind is not direct, but relative;-relative to the various operations of which we are conscious. What am I?' he asks, in his second Meditation :a thinking being; that is, a being, doubting, knowing, affirming, denying, consenting, refusing, susceptible of pleasure and pain. Of all these things I might have had complete experience, without any previous acquaintance with the qualities and laws of matter; and therefore it is impossible that the study of matter can avail me ought in the study of myself.' This accordingly is laid down by Des Cartes as a first principle in metaphysical science-that nothing comprehensible by the imagination can be at all subservient to the knowledge of the mind.*", Proceeding on this principle, but reasoning from it incorrectly, he contends that there are certain innate ideas produced within us by the Great Author of our being-the seeds of which (so to speak) are primarily sown in the understanding by the Deity, but the knowledge of which is to be accounted a reflex act of the understanding.

(4.) In speculating on the nature of the human soul, Des Cartes seems to have strangely blended the peculiarities of his physical system with more correct philosophical notions. After treating at length of the animal nature of the passions, and attempting to explain the manner in which they are physically excited to action, he proceeds to consider the soul of man, as both sensitive and rational-the conflict between the superior and inferior parts of

* Stewart's Diss. ut sup. p. 92. Cartesii Meditat. Phil. ii. & iii.

our nature, being in reality a struggle between the sensitive part, or the animal spirits, and the rational or intellectual powers. By the result of this contest, every one, he imagined, might form a judgment respecting the strength or weakness of his soul-if the passions reign, the body preponderates;-if they are restrained, the soul occupies her due place in the system, and the rational part of our nature exerts the influence which it was intended to maintain.

III. ETHICS.

378. The moral system of Des Cartes is by no means clearly defined, though its prominent features may be inferred from the preceding sketch of his metaphysical speculations. Amidst many visionary theories and abstract speculations, some valuable principles are stated relative to the nature of virtue, the grounds of moral obligation, the relation in which man stands to the Infinite Ruler of the universe-his social duties-the government of his passions-his moral capabilities, and the perfection of his nature, as chiefly consisting in a moral resemblance to the Deity. These are, however, mixed up with numerous speculations of a more doubtful and dangerous tendency. "On the whole," it is remarked by Dr. Enfield, "the Cartesian system appears to have been in part derived from the Grecian philosophy; for it is easy to recognize the Platonic notion of innate ideas, and of the action of the soul on the body; the Aristotelian notion of a plenum ; and the atomic system of Democritus and Epicurus,

in his vortices. Yet he must be confessed also to have discovered great depth of thought, much fertility of imagination, and unwearied diligence of research. He would, however, have occupied a more distinguished place among intellectual philosophers, if he had been less easily led astray by romantic conceptions and visionary hypotheses; had he substituted experiment for theory; and inductive reasonings for hypothetical conjectures."-(Vid. Enfield's Hist. of Philos. Vol. II. p. 554.)

SECTION VIII.

OF THE PRINCIPAL WRITERS ON JURISPRUDENCE, WHO FLOURISHED DURING THE 16TH & 17TH CENTURIES.

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379. DURING the period which has just been reviewed, a highly important branch of intellectual science was successfully cultivated by many who occupy no mean place in the republic of letters, though the limits of the present work will admit of little more than an enumeration of their names, and a cursory notice of their most celebrated writings. The department now referred to, is that which treats of the civil and social relations of mankind; a science to which various names have been given in modern times, but perhaps that of jurisprudence is the most appropriate and best understood. It was stated in a former section (241), that before the memorable æra of the revival of

letters, political science began to be cultivated, more just and enlightened views were entertained of the principles of government, and the nature of the relations subsisting between man and man; and this was enumerated among the causes which contributed to emancipate the human mind from its bondage. Tracing backward, therefore, to that eventful period, the origin of the science in question, it will be attempted to exhibit, at one view, and in chronological order, the train of political philosophers, who flourished between the Reformation and the point at which this history terminates,

the commencement of the eighteenth century, This series commences with Machiavel, and terminates with Montesquieu.

380. MACHIAVEL was a contemporary of Luther, and, like that great reformer, acquired, by the commanding superiority of his genius, an astonishing ascendancy over the minds of his followers;" but in this alone does the resemblance appear; for in all other features of their intellectual character, scarcely can a greater contrast be imagined.

Though comparatively destitute of learning, it was the good fortune of Machiavel to enjoy the splendid patronage of the house of Medieis, under whose auspices not a few of his numerous publications made their first appearance. It falls not within the design of the present work to notice, either his dramatic performances or historical tracts, all of which afford indications of the mighty genius of their author. The books upon which his posthumous fame chiefly depends, and which entitle him to