there is no reason to conclude, that the simple fact that a suspended magnet would invariably point to the North Pole, and still less, that the important application of this property of the loadstone to purposes of navigation, was known in Europe before the middle or close of the twelfth century. The French, Italians, Germans, and English, all contend for the honour of this invention. Their claims may perhaps be most equitably adjusted by supposing that, the idea having been once suggested, important improvements in the construction and use of the mariner's compass were almost simultaneously made in several parts of Europe. The value of this discovery (by whomsoever it may have been made) can scarcely be rated too highly; since it has served to remove the barriers by which distant nations were separated, and opened an easy communication, whether for the purposes of commerce, or christian benevolence, between the remotest inhabitants of our globe. New continents have been discovered, the earth which we inhabit circumnavigated and explored,--the entire dominion of the sea attained,-commerce indefinitely extended,-and wealth, gathered from every region under heaven, accumulated, by means of this felicitous invention. But, we trust, an infinitely more important result of this discovery will yet be seen in the facilities it affords to the universal diffusion of christian knowledge, and the propagation of the gospel throughout the world.

228. The second of the above-mentioned discoveries, viz. the art of printing, is yet more im

portant in itself and in its results.

Some have

attributed this, as well as the preceding invention, to eastern nations, and have adduced evidence to prove, that the Chinese made use of engraved tablets long before the Christian æra. Without entering into this controversy, or presuming to decide on a question so warmly contested, it will be sufficient briefly to notice in this place its European origin. Much obscurity, uncertainty,

and contradiction characterise the earliest historical notices of this art. The most probable statement is that which assigns to HAARLEM the honour of having conferred this inestimable benefit on mankind, and attributes to Laurentius, a native of that city, of comparatively humble birth, the first rude attempts at printing. He began with carving letters in the rind of beech-trees, and impressing the characters on paper for the instruction or amusement of his grand-children. Next he invented a more glutinous kind of ink than that previously used for MSS., in order that the characters thus impressed might be more distinct and permanent. After this, he cut entire pages in blocks of wood; and finally, he prepared, out of the most solid wood that he could procure, separate types, of different sizes and forms. These types are said to have been stolen from Laurentius by one of his servants, (named Geinsfleiches, but better known by that of Faustus,) who carried them to Ments, and there privately printed the first book--" the Doctrinale, or Grammar of Alexander Galius"-in 1442. Other accounts, however, state, that Laurentius had previ

ously printed several books, at Haarlem, from his wooden types, between the years 1430 and 1440 ; among which were the "Speculum Belgicum," and two editions of "Donatus." The next important improvement in this art was the substitution of metallic for wooden types. These were first made of lead, and soon after of a more solid metal, compounded of tin and lead. It seems probable that the first large work printed with metallic types was the Vulgate Bible, published at Mentz, under the auspices of Gutenberg, in 1450, after having been seven or eight years in preparation. A third period in the history of the art of printing is that in which Peter Schoeffer, of Strasburg, effected a valuable improvement by casting metal types, which had been previously cut with much labour, and at great expense. The first printed specimen of these improved types was the "Rationale," or Logic of Durandus, which bears the date of 1459. On account of the three distinct improvements in the art, which have been briefly described, a contest for the honour of its invention arose between Haarlem, Mentz, and Strasburg, which has long since been decided in favour of the former. It is not necessary more minutely to describe the subsequent stages of improvement through which this important art rapidly passed. It constitutes one of the most remarkable features of this invention, that it was perfected almost as soon as discovered; since it is admitted that some of the finest specimens of typography are to be found among the books printed towards the close of the fifteenth century.

CHAPTER III.

THE HISTORY OF INTELLECTUAL SCIENCE DURING THE MIDDLE AGES.

SECTION I.

HISTORY OF LOGIC CONTINUED.

229. THE period, to which the present division of our historical retrospect refers, was chiefly characterised by dialectic subtilties and abstract speculations on metaphysical subjects. This predominant fashion may be traced to a much earlier period than that now under review. It originated with the philosophers of the Eclectic sect, and especially with some christian fathers belonging to the Alexandrian school, who flourished during the second and two following centuries, but whose writings exerted a yet mightier influence after their decease. Among these the most celebrated were, Tertullian, Origen, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Augustine. The three former of these, though eminent scholars, are justly chargeable with the corruption of christianity, by blending with its pure and simple doctrines the speculative refinements of the Platonic philosophy. A taste for metaphysical theology having been thus generated and nurtured, it spread in every direction together with the propagation of the christian faith, and diffused itself through the writings of many of the Latin and Greek fathers. Augustine, Bishop of

Hippo, who flourished about the commencement of the fifth century, contributed in no ordinary degree to the wide and almost universal diffusion of this evil; for such it proved to be in future years, however harmless the speculations might at first appear. His voluminous writings became so celebrated after his death, as almost to supersede every other, and were even deemed by some of the scholastic doctors, (to whom we shall hereafter advert,) a surer standard of orthodoxy, than the writings of the evangelists and apostles. The first distinct treatise on the art of Logic, which properly belongs to the middle ages, was published under the name of Augustine, and long attributed to him, though its spuriousness was afterwards fully proved by some Benedictine monks. This fictitious work, which became so celebrated in the schools, on account of the supposed sanctity and wisdom of its reputed author, was probably the production of some obscure monk, not wholly ignorant of the dialectics of Aristotle, who dexterously availed himself of the superstitions and semibarbarism of the age in which he lived, to give a currency and reputation to his writings, which were by no means due to their merit. It still occupies a place in the first volume of Augustine's works, and consists of two treatises; the first entitled, “ Principia Dialectica;" the second," Categoria Decem;" which were believed to have been translated by Augustine, from the Greek original of Aristotle, into the Latin tongue.

230. It was not, however, till the commencement of the seventh century, that the reign, or rather the